A literary school is a small association of writers based on unified artistic principles formulated theoretically in articles, manifestos, scientific and journalistic statements, designed as "charters" and "rules". Often such an association of writers has a leader, the "head of the school" ("the Shchedrin school", the poets of the "Nekrasov school").

As a rule, writers who have created a number of literary phenomena With a high degree commonality - up to a common theme, style, language. Such, for example, was the Pleiades group in the 16th century. It grew out of a circle of French humanist poets who united to study ancient literature, and finally took shape by the end of the 1540s.

Led it famous poet P. de Ronsard, and the main theorist was Joashen Du Bellay, who in 1549 in the treatise "Protection and glorification French» expressed the main principles of the school - the development of national poetry on national language, the development of ancient and Italian poetic forms.

The poetic practice of Ronsard, Jodel, Baif and Tiyar - the poets of the Pleiades - not only brought fame to the school, but also laid the foundation for the development of French drama in the 17th-18th centuries, developed French literary language And various genres lyrics.

Unlike the movement, which is far from always formalized by manifestos, declarations and other documents that reflect its main principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also their theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school. "Pleiades" is quite consistent with this.

But many associations of writers, called schools, are named after the place of their existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it developed (the north-west of England, the Lake District), consisted of romantic poets, who did not agree with each other in everything. The "leukists" include W. Wordsworth, S. Coleridge, who created the collection "Lyrical Ballads", as well as R. Southey, T. de Quincey and J. Wilson.

But the poetic practice of the latter was in many respects different from the ideologist of the school, Wordsworth. De Quincey himself in his memoirs denied the existence of the "lake school", and Southey often criticized Wordsworth's ideas and poems. But due to the fact that the association of Leikist poets existed, had a similarity of aesthetic and artistic principles reflected in poetic practice, outlined its “program”, literary historians traditionally call this group of poets the “lake school”.

The concept of " literary school» is predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of time and place of existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practice, circles of writers are often groups united by a "leader" who has followers who successively develop or copy him artistic principles.

Group of English religious poets early XVII century formed the Spencer School. Being influenced by the poetry of their teacher, the Fletcher brothers, W. Brown and J. Wither imitated the imagery, themes, and poetic forms of the creator of The Fairy Queen. The poets of the Spenser school copied even the type of stanza he created for this poem, directly borrowing the allegories and stylistic turns of their teacher.

An interesting fact is that the work of the followers of the Spencer poetic school remained on the periphery. literary process, but the work of E. Spencer himself influenced the poetry of J. Milton, and later J. Keats.

Traditionally, the origin of Russian realism is associated with the "natural school" that existed in the 1840s-1850s, successively associated with the work of N.V. Gogol and developing his artistic principles. The “natural school” is characterized by many features of the concept of “literary school”, and it was precisely as a “literary school” that it was perceived by contemporaries.

The main ideologist of the "natural school" was V. G. Belinsky. She is referred to early works I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov, A. I. Herzen, V. I. Dahl, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. I. Panaev, F. M. Dostoevsky. Representatives of the "natural school" grouped around the leading literary journals of the time - at first " Domestic notes”, and then “Contemporary”.

The collections “Physiology of St. Petersburg” and “Petersburg Collection” became the program for the school, in which the works of these writers and articles by V. G. Belinsky were published.

The school had its own system of artistic principles, which was most clearly manifested in special genre- a physiological essay, as well as in the realistic development of the genres of the story and the novel. “The content of the novel,” wrote V. G. Belinsky, “artistic analysis modern society, the disclosure of those invisible foundations of him, which are hidden from him by habit and unconsciousness.

The features of the “natural school” were also manifested in its poetics: love for details, professional, everyday features, extremely precise fixation social types, the desire for documentary, the emphasized use of statistical and ethnographic data have become integral features of the works of the "natural school".

In the novels and stories of Goncharov, Herzen, early work Saltykov-Shchedrin revealed the evolution of the character, which takes place under the influence of the social environment. Of course, the style and language of the authors of the "natural school" was largely different, but the common theme, positivist-oriented philosophy, and the similarity of poetics can be traced in many of their works.

Thus, " natural school"is an example of a combination of many principles of school education - certain temporal and spatial frameworks, the unity of aesthetic and philosophical attitudes, the commonality of formal features, continuity in relation to the "leader", the presence of theoretical declarations.

Examples of schools in the modern literary process are the Lianozovo Group of Poets, the Order of Courtly Mannerists, and many other literary associations.

However, it should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle literary groupings, schools, trends and directions. To view it in this way is to schematize literary life era, impoverish the history of literature, since with such a "directional" approach, the most important individual characteristics The writer's works remain out of sight of the researcher, who is looking for common, often schematic moments.

Even the leading direction of any period, the aesthetic base of which has become a platform for the artistic practice of many authors, cannot exhaust all the diversity literary facts.

Many prominent writers deliberately kept aloof from literary struggle, asserting their philosophical, aesthetic and artistic principles outside the framework of schools, trends, leading trends of a certain era.

Directions, trends, schools are, in the words of V. M. Zhirmunsky, “not shelves or boxes”, “on which we“ lay out ”poets”. “If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there cannot be realistic tendencies in his work.”

The literary process is a complex and diverse phenomenon, so one should be extremely careful when using such categories as “flow” and “direction”. In addition to them, scientists use other terms when studying the literary process, such as style.

Introduction to Literary Studies (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin and others) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005

As noted earlier, among literary critics there is no consensus on how to distinguish between the concepts of "artistic system", "literary direction" and " literary movement". Most often, scholars refer to “systems” as “international literary communities” (baroque, classicism, etc.), while the terms “direction” and “flow” are used in a narrower sense.

The point of view of G.N. Pospelov, who believed that literary movement - ϶ᴛᴏ refraction in the work of writers and poets of certain social views (world outlook, ideologies), and directions - These are writers' groupings that arise on the basis of a common aesthetic views and certain programs artistic activity(expressed in treatises, manifestos, slogans, etc.). Currents and directions in this meaning of words - ϶ᴛᴏ facts of individual national literatures(Theory of literature - M., 1978, pp. 134 - 140).

In other words, direction represents literary concept, denoting a set of fundamental spiritually meaningful and aesthetic principles, characteristic of the work of many writers, a number of groupings, as well as due to these most important principles of coincidence and correspondence of program-creative settings, themes, heat and style.

According to Pospelov, literary direction appears when a group of writers of a particular country and era unites on the basis of some specific creative program and creates their own works, focusing on its provisions. This contributes to greater creative organization and completeness of their works. But it is not the program principles proclaimed by some group of writers that determine the features of their work, but, on the contrary, the ideological and artistic commonality creativity unites writers and inspires them to realize and proclaim the corresponding program principles.

In European literatures directions appear only in modern times when artistic creativity acquires relative independence and the quality of the "art of the word", separating itself from other non-artistic genres. Literature imperiously enters the personal beginning, it becomes possible to express the author's point of view, the choice of one or another life and creative position. Directions in the history of European literature are considered to be Renaissance realism, baroque, classicism, enlightenment realism sentimentalism, romanticism, critical realism, naturalism, symbolism, socialist realism. The existence of these major trends in a number of national literatures is more or less generally recognized. The legitimacy of singling out others - rococo, pre-romanticism, neoclassicism, neo-romanticism, etc. - causes controversy.

Directions are not closed, but open; the transition from one to another usually involves intermediate forms (pre-romanticism in European literature XVIII century). A new direction, replacing the old one, does not immediately eliminate it, but coexists with it for some time - a creative and theoretical debate takes place between them.

The alternation and the same sequence of directions in European literature allow us to consider them as an international phenomenon; however, this or that direction in each literature acts from this point of view as a national variant of the corresponding pan-European model. National-historical originality of directions in individual countries sometimes so significant that attributing them to a single type turns out to be problematic, and the typological commonality of classicism, romanticism, etc. – very conditional and relative. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, when creating a general model of a literary trend, one has to take into account the measure typological commonality of its national forms is the fact that under the flag of one direction there are often directions that are qualitatively different.

Appearance in national literatures literary trends does not mean that all writers necessarily belonged to one or the other of them. There were also such writers who did not rise to the level of programming their creativity, did not create literary theories, and their creativity, therefore, cannot be assigned designations arising from any program provisions. Such writers do not belong to any movement. They also have, of course, a certain commonality of ideological worldview, created by certain circumstances. public life their country and era, which determined the corresponding commonality the ideological content of their works, and hence the form of its expression. This means that the work of these writers also had some kind of socio-historical regularity. A similar group of writers was, for example, in Russian literature - in the era of the dominance of the classicist trend in it. It was formed by M. Chulkov, A. Ablesimov, A. Izmailov and others. To such groups of writers, whose work is connected only ideological and artistic, but not a program community, the science of literature does not give any "proper names" like "classicism", "sentimentalism", etc.

According to Pospelov, the work of those groups of writers who have only ideological and artistic community, follows call literary trend.

This does not mean that the difference between literary trends and currents is only that the representatives of the former, having an ideological and artistic community of creativity, created creative program, and representatives of the latter could not create it. The literary process is a more complex phenomenon. It often happens that the work of a group of writers, the definition of a country and an era that created and proclaimed a single creative program, has, however, only relative And unilateral creative community, that these writers, in essence, belong not to one, but to two (sometimes more) literary movements.

For this reason, while recognizing one creative program, they understand its provisions in different ways and apply them in different ways. There are, in other words, literary trends that combine the work of writers different currents. Sometimes writers of different, but somehow ideologically close to each other currents programmatically unite in the process of their common ideological and artistic polemics with writers of other currents that are sharply hostile to them.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the direction fixes the commonality of deep spiritual and aesthetic foundations artistic content conditioned by the unity of the cultural and artistic tradition, the uniformity of the worldview of the writers and those facing them life problems and, ultimately, the similarity of the epochal socio-cultural-historical situation. But the world outlook itself, that is, the attitude to the problems posed, the idea of ​​ways and means of resolving them, ideological and artistic concepts, the ideals of writers belonging to the same direction are different.

Proceeding from such positions to the concepts of a literary trend and trend, Pospelov raises the question of their existence in national literatures at various stages of their development. historical development. According to the researcher, at all stages of development fiction(starting from literature Ancient Greece) its source has always been the ideological worldview of writers, who represent various social forces with their work and hence often create their works on the principle of antithesis. For this reason, if there were no distinct trends in national literatures before the 17th century, then there were always different trends in them.

Currents existed, for example, in ancient Greek literature classical era its development. Attic democracy created in the 5th century BC. brilliant dramaturgy, anti-aristocratic in ideological orientation, authoritarian-mythological in ideals. It was one of the basic currents of ancient literature of that era. But even earlier, from the VI century BC. in those ancient Greek policies where the slave-owning aristocracy dominated, lyric poetry was actively developing - both civil in content (the works of Theognis from Megara, the odic choral lyrics of Tyrtaeus in Sparta, Pindar in Thebes), and purely personal, in particular love (Alcaeus and Sappho on Lesbos e, Anacreon). This was another main current or even currents in the ancient literature of that era. The appeal of the writers of the militant Attic democracy to dramaturgy, and the aristocratic poets of other cities to lyricism, followed from the peculiarities of the work of both.

Roman classical literature, created in completely different conditions of public life - in early period the existence of imperial power, in the "age of Augustus", was characterized by some duality of its tendencies. The poets of that time responded to the ideological and political demands of the new government and created literature to some extent semi-official, referring to the genre of civil or philosophical poems (Virgil's Aeneid, Ovid's Metamorphoses). . But along with this, the same poets, as well as others, gravitated in their worldview towards an ideological "withdrawal" from the hustle and bustle of the life of imperial Rome. They contrasted the heavy atmosphere of the capital with the imaginary joys of shepherd life (Virgil's Bucolics), the simplicity of rural labor (his Georgics), the solitary enjoyment of the blessings of life (Horace's Satires), the worries love experiences(“Love poems” by Ovid) or they idealized the good old morals (“Odes” by Horace, “Elegies” by Tibullus). Here, despite the mythological authoritarian worldview, the spontaneous humanistic aspirations of these poets were manifested.

Different currents can also be identified throughout the subsequent development of the literature. So, for example, in English romanticism, researchers distinguish three currents: revolutionary (Byron, Shelley), conservative (Wordsworth, Coleridge. Southey) and London (Keats, Lee Hunt) romantics. In relation to Russian romanticism, they speak of "philosophical", "psychological", "civil" currents. In Russian realism, some researchers distinguish between a "psychological" and a "sociological" trend.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, if literary trends existed in national literatures from the very beginning of their historical life, then literary trends took shape in them only at relatively late stages of development and always basis ideological and artistic content literature of one kind or another. For this reason, it is not literary trends that give life to literary movements and contain them, as some researchers believe, but vice versa - currents can form a single direction at some stage of their development, and before that or later exist outside of it. Thus, the literary trend of Russian noble revolutionism began with the work of A.N. Radishchev, who was not a romantic. Later, motives of civil romance arose in it (Pushkin, Ryleev and others), and it entered the direction of romanticism, along with poets and another, religious-romantic movement (Zhukovsky, Kozlov and others) (Pospelov G.N. Theory of Literature - M., 1987, pp. 140 - 160).

Along with the terms "direction" and "flow" to characterize the associations of writers, the concept " school' and 'grouping'. Literary groupings and schools presuppose a direct ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity of its participants (“lake school” in English romanticism, the Parnassus group in France, the “natural school” in Russia, etc.).

Literature lesson in grade 9 No. 1. Introduction. Literary trends, schools, movements.

to introduce students to the textbook, program and objectives of the literature course in grade 9;

generalize knowledge, expand understanding of the stages of development domestic literature;

start repeating literary types and genres, generalize and systematize what was studied in the 8th grade.

Type of lesson: Lecture with elements of conversation.

Teaching methods: Frontal survey, work with the textbook, abstract notes.

Theoretical and literary concepts: literary situation, historical and literary process, literary direction.

Repetition: literary genera and genres.

During the classes:

Repetition of the past:

What is literature?

Define the concept of "literature" (the art of the word).

What's happened classic literature? Give examples of the classics of the 18th -19th centuries.

To which literary genre and the genre includes the works of A.S. Pushkin: “ Winter morning”, “Song of prophetic Oleg”,“ The Tale of Tsar Saltan ”,“ Dubrovsky ”,“ Stationmaster»?

Work with the textbook (part 1, pp. 3-5); write down the theses.

The word of the teacher about the features of the teaching materials of S.A. Zimin.

What's new in the content of the textbook?

On what basis is it located educational material? (chronology)

What writers and genres are you interested in?

Lecture. Recording of abstracts and definitions.

4.1.Historical and literary process

***Historical and literary process - a set of generally significant changes in the literature. Literature is constantly evolving. Each era enriches art with some new artistic discoveries.

The development of the literary process is determined by the following artistic systems: creative method, style, genre, literary trends and currents.

The continuous change of literature is an obvious fact, but significant changes do not occur every year, not even every decade. As a rule, they are associated with serious historical shifts (change historical eras and periods, wars, revolutions associated with the entry into the historical arena of new social forces etc.).

*** Can be distinguished main stages development of European art, which determined the specifics of the historical and literary process: antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

*** The development of the historical and literary process is due to a number of factors, among which, first of all, it should be noted historical situation (socio-political system, ideology, etc.), influence of previous literary traditions And artistic experience other nations . For example, Pushkin's work was seriously influenced by the work of his predecessors not only in Russian literature (Derzhavin, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky and others), but also in European literature (Voltaire, Rousseau, Byron and others).

literary process - it's a complex system literary interactions. It represents the formation, functioning and change of various literary trends and trends.

*** Literary direction- a stable and recurring in a given period of the historical development of literature, the circle of the main features of creativity, expressed in the nature of the selection of phenomena of reality and in the principles of choice of means corresponding to it artistic image by a number of writers.

4.2. Literary movements: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism), postmodernism

Classicism (from lat. classicus - exemplary) - artistic direction V European art turn of XVII-XVIII - early XIX century, formed in France in late XVII century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by rigor art forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, D.I. Fonvizin and others.

Main conflict classic works is the struggle of the hero between reason and feeling. At the same time, the positive hero must always make a choice in favor of the mind (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and the negative one - in favor of feelings.

The same can be said about genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire).

There were special rules for dramatic works. They had to observe three "unities" - places, times and actions. the purity of the genre high genres funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in low ones - tragic and sublime);

purity of the language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - vernacular);

Strict division of heroes into positive and negative, while goodies, choosing between feeling and reason, give preference to the latter;

Compliance with the rule of "three unities";

· affirmation of positive values ​​and state ideal.

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - sensitive, from French sentiment - feeling) - literary direction of the second half of XVIII century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. Unlike the classicists, sentimentalists believe highest value not a state, but a person. Heroes in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. The positive ones are endowed with natural sensitivity (sympathetic, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative - prudent, selfish, arrogant, cruel. In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s (the best representatives are Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism, the conflict develops between a serf and a serf landowner, and the moral superiority of the former is persistently emphasized.

Romanticism - - artistic direction in European and American culture late XVIII-- first half of XIX century. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany, and then spread throughout Western Europe.

All romantics reject the world, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of a romantic dual world.

Rejection, denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. He is in hostile relations with the surrounding society, opposed to it. This is an unusual person, restless, most often lonely and with tragic fate. romantic hero- the embodiment of a romantic rebellion against reality.

Realism (from the Latin realis - real, real) - a literary movement that embodied the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, striving for artistic knowledge man and the world.

Realist writers showed a direct dependence of social, moral, religious beliefs heroes from social conditions, great attention devoted to the social aspect. Central problem realism -- the ratio of plausibility and artistic truth.

Realist writers create new types of heroes: the "little man" type (Vyrin, Bashmachkin, Marmeladov, Devushkin), the " extra person"(Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), the type of a "new" hero (nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, "new people" Chernyshevsky).

Modernism (from the French modern - the latest, modern) philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose on turn of XIX--XX centuries.

Symbolism, acmeism and futurism became the most striking and significant trends in Russian modernism.

Symbolism - - a non-realistic trend in art and literature of the 1870s-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression with the help of a symbol of intuitively comprehended essences and ideas. Symbolism made itself known in France in the 1860s-1870s.

Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of ​​creating art free from the task of depicting reality. Symbolists argued that the purpose of art is not in the image real world, which they considered secondary, but in the transmission of "higher reality". They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol. A symbol is an expression of the poet's supersensible intuition, to whom, in moments of insight, true essence of things. Symbolists developed a new poetic language, which does not directly name the subject, but hints at its content through allegory, musicality, color scheme, free verse.

The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the prospect of an unlimited deployment of meanings.

Acmeism (from the Greek akme - the highest degree of something, flowering power, peak) - a modernist literary trend in Russian poetry of the 1910s. Representatives: S. Gorodetsky, early A. Akhmatova, L. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam. The term "acmeism" belongs to Gumilyov.

Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses to the ideal, from the ambiguity and fluidity of images, complicated metaphor; talked about the need to return to material world, subject, exact value words.

Futurism - one of the main avant-garde trends (avant-garde - extreme manifestation modernism) in European art of the early 20th century, which received greatest development in Italy and Russia.

The Futurists wrote in the name of the man of the crowd. At the heart of this movement was the feeling of "the inevitability of the collapse of the old" (Mayakovsky), the awareness of the birth of a "new humanity". Artistic creativity, according to the futurists, should not be an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which creates through the creative will of man " new world, today, iron ... "(Malevich). This is the reason for the desire to destroy the "old" form, the desire for contrasts, the attraction to colloquial speech. Relying on living colloquial, futurists were engaged in "word-creation" (created neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - a contrast between the comic and the tragic, fantasy and lyrics.

POSTMODERNISM - a literary movement that replaced modernity and differs from it not so much in originality as in the variety of elements, quotation, immersion in culture, reflecting complexity, randomness, modern world; the "spirit of literature" of the late 20th century; world war literature scientific and technological revolution and information explosion.

5. The results of the lesson. What is the strength and potential of literature? Why is reading books so rare these days? Try to evaluate this situation.

6. Homework :

1.p.6-9 (to write out theses. The specifics of Old Russian literature);

The literary direction is artistic method, which forms the general ideological and aesthetic principles in the work of many writers at a certain stage in the development of literature. The grounds necessary to attribute the work of various authors to one literary movement:

Following the same cultural and aesthetic traditions.

Uniform worldview attitudes (i.e. uniformity of world outlook).

General or related principles of creativity.

The conditionality of creativity by the unity of the social and cultural-historical situation.

The literary movements most significant for literature include: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, acmeism, futurism.

FLOW (ARTISTIC AND LITERARY) - a poetic grouping marked by a greater or lesser unity of artistic design techniques among the writers included in it. A characteristic feature of the artistic and literary movement is its chronological limitation.

School in Literature- this is a kind of established community of writers that has realized itself, theoretically outlined its boundaries and stood out from the literary process into an independent education that has its own theoretical platform, principles, program, and publications. Schools can be formed and named after the leader - the Gogol school, the Nekrasov school, and so on.

41. Stages of literary development. The emergence of artistic methods and literary movements: Renaissance realism, classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, impressionism, modernism and postmodernism.

In literary criticism, the notion that there are moments of generality (repetitiveness) in the development of literatures is rooted and is not disputed by anyone. different countries and peoples, about its single "progressive" movement in a large historical time. The stages of the literary process are habitually conceived as corresponding to those stages in the history of mankind, which manifested themselves most distinctly and fully in the countries of Western Europe and especially brightly in the Romanesque. In this regard, ancient, medieval and - literature of the New Age with their own stages stand out (following the Renaissance - baroque, classicism, the Enlightenment with its sentimentalist branch, romanticism, and finally, realism, with which modernism coexists and successfully competes in the 20th century) . Scholars have best understood the stage differences between the literatures of the New Age and the literature that preceded them. method is, first of all, an ideological concept. Therefore, the above-mentioned artistic movements (baroque, classicism, romanticism) are at the same time methods of art

Realism of the Renaissance (XIV-XVI centuries)

originated in Italy. Return on a new, higher basis to the most important features of ancient art. Renaissance realism discovered individual person and approved its power and beauty, liberated the personality, delivered a person from the fetters of medieval asceticism. In emancipation, which implemented the principle of "do what you want", was not only the strength, but also the weakness of the realism of the Renaissance, since it opened up scope for the active self-fulfillment of any inclinations of the individual: both good and evil.

Realistic way of thinking.

humanist position.

Personal affirmation.

Optimism.

The striving for the ideal is combined with the affirmation of everything earthly, carnal.

Extensive use of fairy-tale elements.

Hyperbole.

Classicism Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which found a vivid expression in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of a person as the highest value of being, freeing him from religious and church influence. A productive creative method, it was based on the principle of "imitation of nature", which the classicists represented as rationalistically harmonious and perfect (as an ideal creation of God).

This method affirmed the idea of ​​the original rationality and goodness of man, whose development depends only on good or bad education.

The artistic world created on the basis of this method seems to be harmonious, clear and didactic. The aesthetic system of classicism was a set of rules according to which works of art should be created:

- "purity of genre" and style(i.e. a strict division of genres into "high" - ode, poem, tragedy, and "low" - satire, fable, comedy);

- observance of the "three unities"(place, time and action) in drama, etc.;

- poetry should be distinguished by rigor and clarity thoughts, harmony of composition, purity of speech.

Sentimentalism(French feeling) - an artistic method that arose in England in the middle of the 18th century and became widespread ch. arr. in European literature Shzh Richardson, L. Stern - in England; Rousseau, L. S. Mercier - in France; Herder, Jean Paul - in Germany; N M. Karamzin and early V. A. Zhukovsky - in Russia). Being last step In the development of the Enlightenment, S. in its ideological content and artistic features opposed classicism. The social aspirations and moods of the democratic part of the “third estate”, its protest against feudal remnants, against increasing social inequality and the leveling of the individual in the emerging bourgeois society, found their expression in S. But these progressive tendencies of S. were significantly limited by his aesthetic credo: idealization of natural life in the bosom of nature, as free from any coercion and oppression, devoid of the vices of civilization; anti-rationalism; cult of intimate feelings.

Romanticism is an artistic method that took shape in the early 19th century. and widely used as a trend in literature and art in most European countries, Russia, and the USA. It appeared in Western Europe after the French bourgeois revolution of 1789. Romantic writers, denying reality, dreamed of a better future and called on readers to fight for the reorganization of society, the heroes of their works are rebels, fighters for justice. Often, romantics turned to the past, looking for unusual people in it, who accomplished a feat in the name of freedom. But the surrounding reality was a contrast for romantic ideas, so defenseless heroes, confused in front of the outside world, often left the pages of writers of this direction, and we see the tragedy of their destinies.

Unlike the representatives of classicism, the Romantics demanded complete freedom of creativity, stood for the use of a variety of genres, changed old genres and created new ones. The lyrical, personal beginning prevailed. The plot was based on extraordinary events, often fantastic. The author placed the characters in acute situations, where their characteristic features were revealed with particular brightness. The action was sometimes transferred to distant countries, took place in unusual, outlandish conditions. Russian romanticism, which appeared after 1812, 1825, is original and inseparable from the influence of Western romanticism.

The heroes of romanticism are passionate, restless, indomitable natures. In Europe, these are the characters of Hugo, Byron, Heine, Scott, Dumas; in Russia - Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Pushkin and others.

Aesthetic theory defines realism as an artistic method, a truthful, historically concrete reflection of reality from the standpoint of a certain aesthetic ideal. we are talking about realism as a principle of approach to comprehending and reflecting phenomena, then it is inherent in truthfulness, historical concreteness, reflection of typical characters in typical circumstances. The aesthetic ideal in realism as an artistic method is the result of the creative efforts of the artist, and not the starting position of creativity, as based on the principle of idealization of reality (classicism, romanticism) Finally, as a historically developed community artistic means it is defined through the concept of the direction of art as a kind of structural unity figurative system and artistic means of displaying realism is a style.

Symbolism- one of the largest trends in art (in literature, music and painting), which arose in France in the 1870s and 80s. and reached its greatest development at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, primarily in France itself, Belgium and Russia. The Symbolists radically changed not only different kinds art, but also the attitude towards it. Their experimental nature, desire for innovation, cosmopolitanism and a wide range of influences have become a model for most contemporary art movements. Symbolists used symbolism, understatement, hints, mystery, mystery. The main mood captured by the symbolists was pessimism, reaching to despair. Everything “natural” seemed to be only “appearance”, which had no independent artistic value.

Impressionism(from impression - impression) is an art direction that originated in France in the late 1860s. Its representatives strove to capture the real world in its mobility and variability in the most natural and unbiased way, to convey their fleeting impressions, psychological nuances, the mobility and variability of the atmosphere of the surrounding world.

As an artistic method modernism(originated at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries) became a kind of denial of the traditional norms of creativity, it was the principle "on the contrary" according to realism. Modernism “decomposed” the traditional artistic image, the absolute of its individual elements: the content of the image (naturalism), its expressiveness (abstractionism), emotional richness (expressionism), ambiguity, supernaturalism (surrealism) and others. In general terms, we can say that in the interwar period, a culture focused "on the depths of individual psychology" was affirmed. This approach received its initial design primarily in the theory of culture of the founder of psychoanalysis, the Austrian 3. Freud.

Postmodernism is more of a mindset, an intellectual style. As a type of mentality, postmodernism is a hyper-reflection that arose in the conditions of a religious and philosophical vacuum, discrediting ideological concepts, total relativism, and overproduction of items of momentary consumption. As a creative setting, postmodernism shows a maximum of intellectual-playing, heuristic, reflective, destructive and a minimum of meaning-forming, ethical, aesthetic, constructive. postmodernism does not belong to the field of philosophy or history, is not associated with ideology, does not seek and does not assert any truths. Postmodernism is regarded as a reaction to the modernist cult of the new, as well as an elite reaction to mass culture, as a polycentric state of the ethical and aesthetic paradigm. Postmodernism is also seen as a reaction to the total commercialization of culture, as an opposition to official culture. The essence of postmodernism is coquetry.

The term literary movement usually denotes a group of writers who are bound by a common ideological position and artistic principles within the same direction or artistic movement. Yes, modernism common name different groupings in the art and literature of the 20th century, which distinguishes a departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, a new approach to the depiction of being, includes such movements as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism, futurism, imagism and others

The belonging of artists to one direction or trend does not exclude deep differences between them. creative individuals. In turn, in the individual work of writers, features of various literary trends and trends can manifest themselves. For example, O. Balzac, being a realist, creates romantic novel"Shagreen leather", and M. Y. Lermontov, along with romantic works, writes realistic novel"Hero of our time".

Flow - a smaller unit of the literary process, often within the framework of a direction, characterized by existence in a certain historical period and, as a rule, localization in certain literature. The trend is also based on a common content principles, but the similarity of ideological and artistic concepts is more clearly manifested. Quite often, the commonality of artistic principles in a current forms an "artistic system". Yes, within the framework French classicism distinguish two currents. One is based on the tradition of rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes ("Cartesian rationalism"), which includes the work of P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau. Another trend, based mainly on the sensationalist philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in ideological principles such writers as J. La Fontaine, J. B. Molière. In addition, both movements differ in the system of artistic means used. In romanticism, two main currents are often distinguished - "progressive" and "conservative", but there are other classifications.

The writer's belonging to one or another direction or trend (as well as the desire to stay outside the existing trends in literature) presupposes a free, personal expression of the author's worldview, his aesthetic and ideological positions. This fact is related to the rather late emergence of trends and trends in European literature - the period of the New Age, when the personal, authorial principle becomes the leading one in literary creativity. This is the fundamental difference between the modern literary process and the development of the literature of the Middle Ages, in which the content and formal features of the texts were "predetermined" by tradition and "canon". The peculiarity of trends and currents lies in the fact that these communities are based on the deep unity of philosophical, aesthetic and other substantive principles in many different, individually authorial artistic systems.

Directions and currents should be distinguished from literary schools (and literary groupings).

literary school

A literary school is a small association of writers based on unified artistic principles formulated theoretically - in articles, manifestos, scientific and publicistic statements, designed as "charters" and "rules". Quite often such an association of writers has a leader, the "head of the school" ("the Shchedrin school", the poets of the "Nekrasov school").

As a rule, writers who have created a number of literary phenomena with a high degree of commonality, up to a common theme, style, and language, are generally recognized as belonging to the same school. Such, for example, was in the XVI century. Pleiades group. It grew out of a circle of French humanist poets who united to study ancient literature, and finally took shape by the end of the 1540s. It was headed by the famous poet P. de Ronsard, and the main theorist was Joashen Du Bellay, who in 1549 in the treatise "Protection and glorification of the French language" expressed the main principles of the school's activities - the development of national poetry in the national language, the development of ancient and Italian poetic forms . The poetic practice of Ronsard, Jodel, Baif and Tiyar - the poets of the "Pleiades" - not only brought fame to the school, but also laid the foundation for the development of French drama in the 17th-18th centuries, developed the French literary language and various genres of lyrics.

Unlike the movement, which is far from always formalized by manifestos, declarations and other documents that reflect its main principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also their theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school. "Pleiades" is quite consistent with this.

But many associations of writers, called schools, are named after the place of their existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it developed (the north-west of England, the Lake District), consisted of romantic poets, far from agreeing with each other in everything. The "leukists" include W. Wordsworth, S. Coleridge, who created the collection "Lyrical Ballads", as well as R. Southey, T. de Quincey and J. Wilson. But the poetic practice of the latter was in many respects different from the ideologist of the school, Wordsworth. De Quincey himself in his memoirs denied the existence of the "lake school", and Southey often criticized Wordsworth's ideas and poems. But due to the fact that the association of Leikist poets existed, had a similarity of aesthetic and artistic principles reflected in poetic practice, outlined its "program", literary historians traditionally call this group of poets the "lake school".

The concept of "literary school" is predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of time and place of the existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practice, circles of writers often represent groups united by a "leader" who has followers who successively develop or copy his artistic principles. A group of English religious poets of the early 17th century. formed the Spencer School. Being influenced by the poetry of their teacher, the Fletcher brothers, W. Brown and J. Wither imitated the imagery, themes, and poetic forms of the creator of The Fairy Queen. The poets of the Spenser school copied even the type of stanza he created for this poem, directly borrowing the allegories and stylistic turns of their teacher. An interesting fact is that the work of the followers of the Spencer poetic school remained on the periphery of the literary process, but the work of E. Spencer himself influenced the poetry of J. Milton, and later J. Keats.

Traditionally, the origin of Russian realism is associated with the "natural school" that existed in the 1840s-1850s, successively connected with the work of N.V. Gogol and developing his artistic principles. The "natural school" is characterized by many features of the concept of "literary school", and it was precisely as a "literary school" that it was perceived by contemporaries. The main ideologist of the "natural school" was V. G. Belinsky. It includes the early works of I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov, A. I. Herzen, V. I. Dahl, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. I. Panaev, F. M. Dostoevsky. Representatives of the "natural school" grouped around the leading literary journals of that time - first "Notes of the Fatherland", and then "Contemporary". The collections "Physiology of St. Petersburg" and "Petersburg Collection" became programmatic for the school, in which the works of these writers and articles by V. G. Belinsky were published. The school had its own system of artistic principles, which was most clearly manifested in a special genre - the physiological essay, as well as in the realistic development of the genres of the story and the novel. "The content of the novel," wrote V. G. Belinsky, "is an artistic analysis of modern society, the disclosure of those invisible foundations of it, which are hidden from him by habit and unconsciousness." The features of the "natural school" also manifested themselves in its poetics: the love for details, professional, everyday features, the extremely accurate fixation of social types, the desire for documentary, the emphasized use of statistical and ethnographic data became integral features of the works of the "natural school". In the novels and stories of Goncharov, Herzen, the early work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, the evolution of the character, which takes place under the influence of the social environment, was revealed. Of course, the style and language of the authors of the "natural school" were largely different, but the commonality of themes, positivist-oriented philosophy, and the similarity of poetics can be traced in many of their works. Thus, the "natural school" is an example of a combination of many principles of school education - certain temporal and spatial frameworks, the unity of aesthetic and philosophical attitudes, the commonality of formal features, continuity in relation to the "leader", the presence of theoretical declarations.

Examples of schools in the modern literary process are the Lianozovo Group of Poets, the Order of Courtly Mannerists, and many other literary associations.

However, it should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle of literary groups, schools, trends and trends. To consider it in this way means to schematize the literary life of the era, to impoverish the history of literature, since with such a "directional" approach, the most important individual features of the writer's work remain out of sight of the researcher, who is looking for common, often schematic moments. Even the leading direction of any period, the aesthetic base of which has become a platform for the artistic practice of many authors, cannot exhaust the entire variety of literary facts. Many prominent writers consciously stayed away from the literary struggle, asserting their philosophical, aesthetic and artistic principles outside the framework of schools, trends, leading trends of a certain era. Directions, currents, schools are, in the words of V. M. Zhirmunsky, “not shelves or boxes”, “on which we “lay out” poets”. "If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there cannot be realistic tendencies in his work." The literary process is a complex and diverse phenomenon, so one should be extremely careful when using such categories as "flow" and "direction". In addition to them, scientists use other terms when studying the literary process, such as style.

• Belinsky V. G. complete collection works: in 13 volumes. T. 10. M., 1956. S. 106.
• Zhirmunsky V. M. Introduction to Literary Studies. SPb., 1996. S. 419.