What is a “storytelling event”? First of all, we must remember that a work of art as a whole represents not only the world depicted, but also the author’s statement about this world. And every statement is addressed to someone, intended for someone.
The text of the work is therefore correlated not only with the subject - the event, the hero (which artistic expression are depicted, evaluated, etc.), but also with a single subject of speech, who owns many statements throughout the work, or with various subjects of speech, “authors” of the statements contained in this work (such as direct speech of characters, epigraphs, inserted texts, etc.).
Combination of plurality speaking persons within a work with a single subject of speech present throughout the entire work, more noticeable in epic, but also in drama.
In novels, stories, short stories or plays, on the one hand, we find the direct speech of the characters (their monologues, dialogues, letters, stories, etc.), on the other hand, statements of some special subject of speech (it is not always possible to call his “face”). He clearly does not belong to the characters and treats his messages, descriptions and reasoning (as in an epic) or his list characters and remarks (as in a drama) are by no means directed at them, but directly at the reader.
The speaking character, of course, is not only the subject of the image, but sometimes also its subject: he can talk about someone or describe something, while addressing other characters. But the one on whose behalf the list of characters in the drama is given or who reports, for example, biographical information about the heroes in Turgenev’s novels, he himself is not portrayed by anyone, i.e. is only the subject of speech and at the same time addresses exclusively the readers, and not the characters.
This focus on any potential addressee is always present in the lyrics, regardless of whether a certain specific addressee is named within the poem (as in “I remember wonderful moment...") or not (as in “She sat on the floor / And sorted out a pile of letters”). In lyric poetry, just as in epic and drama, there are, in addition, several different subjects of utterance (“Spring Thunderstorm” and Tyutchev’s “Two Voices”).
“Telling event” is such communication between the subject of the utterance in work of art and its addressee, the reader, in the course of which or through which the work depicts and evaluates its subject.
This definition, as you can see, does not take into account such storytelling events that can be called secondary: the reader is shown a hero who tells a story to his listeners (other characters). After all, such a storytelling event does not first of all depict the subject for the reader, but is itself depicted. The depictive meaning of the hero's story is secondary. Such are, for example, the stories of Maxim Maksimych in Bel or Pechorin himself in the Journal, as well as the story of Ivan Vasilyevich in After the Ball.
Subject of speech and bearer of point of view
Within separate statement, i.e., either the entire work or any part of it, the subject of speech (the one who is considered the “author”, to whom the statement belongs) may not coincide with the bearer of the “point of view” (with the one whose eyes the object is shown, whose assessment of the object conveyed by this speech).
For example, if we read: “Hermann stopped and began to look at the windows. In one of them he saw a black-haired head bent over a book or at work,” then the speech clearly belongs to one subject (let’s call him the narrator for now), and the look and the ability to see the object in this way belong to another subject, namely the character.
This difference is not always taken into account in existing definitions of the concepts “subject of speech” and “point of view”. Thus, in the mentioned manual by B. O. Corman it is said that the “speaker of speech” is found “in the physical point of view, that is, in the position” that he “occupies in space.” But contrary to this statement, in our example the spatial point of view belongs to a character who, however, is not a speaker.
More complex and interesting case- improperly direct speech: “He accused himself of not having ideals and a guiding idea in life, although he now vaguely understood what this meant” (“Duel” by Chekhov). Formally, the bearer of both speech and point of view on the hero is one: the narrator or the main storyteller. But at the same time, the hero also turns out to be the bearer of speech (the words “there are no ideals or guiding ideas”).
However, these words previously expressed the hero’s point of view about himself, which he no longer adheres to. As a result, at the moment of speech, the hero, as the bearer of today’s point of view, does not coincide with himself as the subject of speech (in the past).
Of the sources available to us, the difference between the subject of speech and the bearer of a point of view is most clearly defined in J. Genette’s treatise “Narrative Discourse” and in the book “The Theory of Narrative” by Franz Stanzel. The first study distinguishes between two questions: “the question is, what is the character whose point of view guides the narrative perspective? and a completely different question: who is the narrator? or, in other words, “the question is who sees? and the question is who speaks?”
F. Stanzel also shares two aspects: storytelling (telling something to the reader in words) and perception of what is happening in fictional world. As will be seen later, the judgments of both researchers help to distinguish between two problems - narrative and composition.
Theory of Literature / Ed. N.D. Tamarchenko - M., 2004
People of art - artists, writers, musicians - are extraordinary personalities who see many events through the prism of their talent. Sometimes it breaks through all the laws of physics and rushes into the future. Prediction in art is not a rare thing, but it is phenomenal and often frightening.
Prophecies of Jules Verne
Science fiction writer Jules Verne made a stunning prediction in art. In the novel “From the Earth to the Moon,” he describes in detail the flight to the Moon in 1865, which actually took place in 1968. And the point is not that the author fantasized about space exploration, but that he described the ship in detail, accurately indicated its height and weight, the crew of 3 astronauts, the launch site - Florida and the landing site in the Pacific Ocean, the month of the flight - December. In 1994, a manuscript by Jules Verne, previously considered lost, “Paris in 1968” was found. Here, not only fax and photocopier services were described in detail, but also the modern appearance of the city with an openwork tower. In total, the author made 108 predictions, of which 64 have already come true.
What other science fiction writers foresaw
There were other predictions in art. Examples can be found in the works of Belyaev, the Strugatsky brothers, Herbert Wells, Alexei Tolstoy, and Ray Bradbury. They predicted many modern inventions, such as mobile phone, TV, 3D images, smart home, robots.
A truly shocking prediction in art is Edgar Allan Poe's The Adventures of Arthur Pym, which details a shipwreck in which four people were saved. After many days of wandering on the open sea, exhausted by hunger and thirst, three kill the fourth and eat him. 50 years after the publication of the work, the events repeated themselves with amazing accuracy, even the names of the characters coincided. It is impossible to give a rational explanation for this.
Another tragic prediction of the future in art belongs to the American writer M. Robertson. In the novel “Futility,” he described in detail the disaster that occurred 14 years after the book was published. Coincidences real facts with fantasies that are simply unimaginable.
The poet Mikhail Lermontov predicted October Revolution 1917 and described his own death in detail in rhyming lines.
The artist who painted the future
Argentine artist Benjamin Parravicini, in a fit of creative insight, made sketches that predicted the tsunami in Japan and the accident at nuclear power plant Fukushima, the American flight to the moon, the flight into space of the first living creature - the mongrel Laika, the "peaceful atom", communism in China, fascism and the Second World War. Parravicini predicted the revolution in Cuba led by the bearded man when Fidel Castro was only 11 years old. The 1939 drawing, symbolizing the tragic terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, depicts the famous Twin Towers, which were not even built then. How can we explain this incredible prediction in art? Skeptics may argue that the interpretation of symbolic drawings can be adjusted to the facts. But the Argentine prophet accompanied each of his drawings detailed descriptions upcoming events. As they say, what is written with a pen...
An inexplicable phenomenon - a prediction in art
In 1987, the show “Second Chance” aired, in one of the episodes of which British comedian D. Meicher recited that in 2011 the Libyan leader Gaddafi will find his death, who will go to hell for his connections with terrorists. The leader of Libya actually died in 2011. The name of the screenwriter who left this prediction in art, unfortunately, is unknown. After all, the actor simply voiced the prophetic work of some author.
Predicted his death on a Facebook blog American musician Mikey Welsh. Two weeks before his death, he wrote that he had a dream that in 2 weeks he would die of cardiac arrest. That's exactly what happened. Mikhail Krug also reflected his death in the song, describing that he would die in his own home.
Not only ordinary people, but also the scientific world are amazed by predictions in art. The examples are often striking in their precision of detail. The description of the place, date and situation of the incident coincides.
What lies ahead?
It is useful to compare predictions in art that have come true with prophecies that have not come true. This makes it possible to assume that in the near future humanity will master time travel, intergalactic flights, biorobots will be created and artificial intelligence, the most progressive treatment will be organ transplantation, we will establish friendly relations with aliens. These are optimistic views. Pessimists talk about “star” wars, aging in a few hours and the complete degradation of humanity to a gregarious way of life.
Any work of art is aimed at the future. In the history of art one can find many examples of artists warning their fellow citizens about impending social danger: wars, schisms, revolutions, etc. The ability to provide foresight is inherent in great artists, perhaps this is where the main strength of art lies. German painter and graphic artist of the Renaissance Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) created a series of engravings "Apocalypse". The artist expressed an anxious expectation of world-historical changes, which indeed shook Germany after some time. According to the plot of the Apocalypse, horsemen appear on earth one by one, but the artist deliberately placed them side by side. Everything is like in life - war, pestilence, death, judgment come together. It is believed that the key to this arrangement of figures lies in Dürer’s desire to warn his contemporaries and descendants that, having destroyed the wall that the artist had erected in the form of the edge of the engraving, the horsemen would inevitably burst into the real world. Etchings by F. . Goya, paintings “Guernica” by P. Picasso, “Bolshevik” by B. Kustodiev, “ New planet» K. Yuona and many others.In the painting “Bolshevik” Boris Mikhailovich Kustodiev (1878–1927) used a metaphor ( hidden meaning), which has not been solved for many decades. Using this example, you can understand how the content of the picture is filled with new meaning, how the era with its new views and changed value orientations puts new meanings into the content.Any work of art is directed towards the future. In the history of art one can find many examples of artists warning their fellow citizens about impending social danger: wars, schisms, revolutions, etc. The ability to provide foresight is inherent in great artists, perhaps this is where the main strength of art lies.The German painter and graphic artist of the Renaissance Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) created a series of engravings “Apocalypse”. The artist expressed an anxious expectation of world-historical changes, which indeed shook Germany after some time.According to the plot of the Apocalypse, horsemen appear on earth one by one, but the artist deliberately placed them next to each other. Everything is like in life - war, pestilence, death, judgment come together. It is believed that the key to this arrangement of figures lies in Durer’s desire to warn his contemporaries and descendants that, having destroyed the wall that the artist had erected in the form of the edge of the engraving, the horsemen would inevitably burst into the real world.Examples of art’s predictions of social change and upheaval include the etchings of F. Goya, the paintings “Guernica” by P. Picasso, “Bolshevik” by B. Kustodiev, “New Planet” by K. Yuon and many others.
The natural forms of existence of the depicted world (as well as the world of time and the real) are time and space. Time and space in literature represent a kind of convention, the nature of which determines different shapes spatiotemporal organization of the artistic world.
Among other arts, literature deals most freely with time and space (only the art of cinema can compete in this regard).
In particular, literature can show events occurring simultaneously in different places: to do this, the narrator just needs to introduce into the narrative the formula “Meanwhile, something was happening there” or a similar one. Just as simply, literature moves from one time layer to another (especially from the present to the past and back); most early forms Such a temporary switch was the memory and story of a hero - we already meet them in Homer.
One more important property literary time and space is their discreteness (discontinuity). In relation to time, this is especially important, since literature does not reproduce the entire time flow, but selects only artistically significant fragments from it, designating “empty” intervals with formulas such as “how long, how short,” “several days have passed,” etc. Such temporal discreteness serves as a powerful means of dynamizing first the plot, and subsequently psychologism.
Fragmentation artistic space partly connected with the properties of artistic time, partly has an independent character. Thus, an instantaneous change in space-time coordinates, natural for literature (for example, the transfer of action from St. Petersburg to Oblomovka in Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov”) makes the description of the intermediate space (in this case, the road) unnecessary. The discreteness of the actual spatial images lies in the fact that in literature this or that place may not be described in all details, but only indicated by individual signs that are most significant for the author and have a high semantic load. The remaining (usually large) part of the space is “completed” in the reader’s imagination. Thus, the scene of action in Lermontov’s “Borodino” is indicated by only four fragmentary details: “large field”, “redoubt”, “guns and forests with blue tops”. Also fragmentary, for example, is the description of Onegin’s village office: only “Lord Byron’s portrait”, a figurine of Napoleon and - a little later - books are noted. Such discreteness of time and space leads to significant artistic economy and increases the significance of an individual figurative detail.
The nature of the conventions of literary time and space greatly depends on the type of literature. In the lyrics this convention is maximum; in lyrical works, in particular, there may be no image of space at all - for example, in Pushkin’s poem “I loved you...”. In other cases, spatial coordinates are present only formally, being conditionally allegorical: for example, it is impossible to say that the space of Pushkin’s “Prophet” is the desert, and Lermontov’s “Sails” is the sea. However, at the same time, lyrics are capable of reproducing the objective world with its spatial coordinates, which have a great artistic significance. Thus, in Lermontov’s poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd...” the contrast of spatial images of the ballroom and the “wonderful kingdom” embodies the antithesis of civilization and nature, which is very important for Lermontov.
Lyrics deal with artistic time just as freely. We often observe in it a complex interaction of time layers: past and present (“When a noisy day falls silent for a mortal...” by Pushkin), past, present and future (“I will not humiliate myself before you...” by Lermontov), mortal human time. and eternity (“Having rolled down the mountain, the stone lay in the valley...” Tyutchev). There is also a complete absence in the lyrics significant image time, as, for example, in Lermontov’s poems “Both Bored and Sad” or Tyutchev’s “Wave and Thought” - the time coordinate of such works can be defined by the word “always”. On the contrary, there is also a very acute perception of time by the lyrical hero, which is characteristic, for example, of the poetry of I. Annensky, as evidenced even by the names of his works: “Moment”, “The melancholy of fleetingness”, “Minute”, not to mention the more profound images However, in all cases, lyrical time has a high degree of conventionality, and often abstraction.
The conventions of dramatic time and space are associated mainly with the orientation of drama towards theatrical production. Of course, each playwright has his own construction of the space-time image, but the general character of the convention remains unchanged: “No matter how significant the role in dramatic works no matter how narrative fragments acquire, no matter how the depicted action is fragmented, no matter how the characters’ spoken statements are subordinated to the logic of their inner speech, drama is committed to pictures closed in space and time.”*
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* Khalizev V.E. Drama as a kind of literature. M., 1986. P. 46.
The epic genre has the greatest freedom in handling artistic time and space; It is also where the most complex and interesting effects in this area are observed.
By features artistic convention literary time and space can be divided into abstract and concrete. This division is especially important for the artistic space. We will call abstract a space that has a high degree of conventionality and which, in the limit, can be perceived as a “universal” space, with coordinates “everywhere” or “nowhere.” It does not have a pronounced characteristic and therefore does not have any influence on the artistic world of the work: it does not determine the character and behavior of a person, is not associated with the characteristics of the action, does not set any emotional tone, etc. Thus, in Shakespeare’s plays, the location of the action is either completely fictitious (“Twelfth Night,” “The Tempest”) or does not have any influence on the characters and circumstances (“Hamlet,” “Coriolanus,” “Othello”). According to Dostoevsky’s correct remark, “his Italians, for example, are almost entirely the same English”*. In a similar way, artistic space is built in the dramaturgy of classicism, in many romantic works(ballads by Goethe, Schiller, Zhukovsky, short stories by E. Poe, “The Demon” by Lermontov), in the literature of decadence (plays by M. Maeterlinck, L. Andreev) and modernism (“The Plague” by A. Camus, plays by J.-P. Sartre, E. Ionesco).
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* Dostoevsky F.M. Full collection cit., In 30 volumes. M., 1984. T. 26. P. 145.
On the contrary, concrete space does not simply “tie” the depicted world to certain topographical realities, but actively influences the entire structure of the work. In particular, for Russian literature of the 19th century V. characterized by the concretization of space, the creation of images of Moscow, St. Petersburg, a district town, an estate, etc., as discussed above in connection with the category of literary landscape.
In the 20th century Another trend has clearly emerged: a peculiar combination of concrete and abstract space within a work of art, their mutual “flowing” and interaction. In this case, the specific place of action is given symbolic meaning And high degree generalizations. A specific space becomes a universal model of existence. At the origins of this phenomenon in Russian literature were Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “The History of the Village of Goryukhin”), Gogol (“The Inspector General”), then Dostoevsky (“Demons”, “The Brothers Karamazov”); Saltykov-Shchedrin “The History of a City”), Chekhov (almost all mature creativity). In the 20th century, this tendency finds expression in the works of A. Bely (“Petersburg”), Bulgakov (“ White Guard", "The Master and Margarita"), Ven. Erofeev (“Moscow–Petushki”), and in foreign literature– in M. Proust, W. Faulkner, A. Camus (“The Stranger”), etc.
(Interestingly, a similar tendency to turn real space in the symbolic is observed in the 20th century. and in some other arts, in particular in cinema: for example, in the films of F. Coppola “Apocalypse Now” and F. Fellini “Orchestra Rehearsal”, a very concrete space at the beginning is gradually transformed towards the end into something mystical-symbolic.)
The corresponding properties of artistic time are usually associated with abstract or concrete space. Thus, the abstract space of a fable is combined with abstract time: “For the strong, the powerless are always to blame...”, “And in the heart the flatterer will always find a corner...”, etc. In this case, the most universal patterns are mastered human life, timeless and spaceless. And vice versa: spatial specificity is usually complemented by temporal specificity, as, for example, in the novels of Turgenev, Goncharov, Tolstoy and others.
The forms of concretization of artistic time are, firstly, the “linking” of action to real historical landmarks and, secondly, precise definition“cyclical” time coordinates: seasons and time of day. The first form received special development in the aesthetic system of realism of the 19th–20th centuries. (thus, Pushkin insistently pointed out that in his “Eugene Onegin” time is “calculated according to the calendar”), although, of course, it arose much earlier, apparently already in antiquity. But the degree of specificity in each individual case will be different and emphasized to varying degrees by the author. For example, in “War and Peace” by Tolstoy, “The Life of Klim Samgin” by Gorky, “The Living and the Dead” by Simonov, etc. in artistic worlds, real historical events are directly included in the text of the work, and the time of action is determined with an accuracy not only to the year and month, but often to one day. But in “A Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov or “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoevsky, the time coordinates are quite vague and can be guessed by indirect signs, but at the same time the connection in the first case to the 30s, and in the second to the 60s.
The depiction of the time of day has long had a certain emotional meaning in literature and culture. Thus, in the mythology of many countries, night is the time of undivided dominance of secret and most often evil forces, and the approach of dawn, heralded by the cry of a rooster, brought deliverance from evil spirits. Clear traces of these beliefs can be easily found in literature up to the present day (“The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov, for example).
These emotional and semantic meanings were preserved to a certain extent in the literature of the 19th–20th centuries. and even became persistent metaphors such as “the dawn of a new life.” However, a different tendency is more typical for the literature of this period - to individualize the emotional and psychological meaning of the time of day in relation to a specific character or lyrical hero. Thus, the night can become a time of intense thought (“Poems composed at night during insomnia” by Pushkin), anxiety (“The pillow is already hot...” by Akhmatova), melancholy (“The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov). Morning can also change its emotional coloring to the exact opposite, becoming a time of sadness (“Foggy morning, gray morning...” by Turgenev, “A Pair of Bays” by A.N. Apukhtin, “Gloomy Morning” by A.N. Tolstoy). In general, individual shades in the emotional coloring of time exist in latest literature great multitude.
The season has been mastered in human culture since ancient times and was associated mainly with the agricultural cycle. In almost all mythologies, autumn is a time of dying, and spring is a time of rebirth. This mythological scheme passed into literature, and its traces can be found in the most different works. However, more interesting and artistically significant are the individual images of the season for each writer, filled, as a rule, with psychological meaning. Here there are already complex and implicit relationships between the time of year and state of mind, giving a very wide emotional range (“I don’t like spring...” by Pushkin – “I love spring most of all...” by Yesenin). Correlation psychological state character and lyrical hero with one season or another, in some cases it becomes a relatively independent object of comprehension - here we can recall Pushkin’s sensitive sense of the seasons (“Autumn”), Blok’s “Snow Masks”, lyrical digression in Tvardovsky’s poem “Vasily Terkin”: “And at what time of year // Is it easier to die in war?” The same time of year is individualized for different writers and carries different psychological and emotional loads: let’s compare, for example, Turgenev’s summer in nature and the St. Petersburg summer in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”; or almost always Chekhov’s joyful spring (“It felt like May, dear May!” - “The Bride”) with spring in Bulgakov’s Yershalaim (“Oh, what a terrible month of Nisan this year!”).
Like local space, specific time can reveal in itself the beginnings of absolute, infinite time, as, for example, in Dostoevsky’s “Demons” and “The Brothers Karamazov”, in late prose Chekhov (“Student”, “On Business”, etc.), in “The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov, novels by M. Proust, “The Magic Mountain” by T. Mann, etc.
Both in life and in literature, space and time are not given to us in pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it (in a broad sense), and we judge time by the processes occurring in it. For practical analysis of a work of art, it is important to at least qualitatively (“more - less”) determine the fullness, saturation of space and time, since this indicator often characterizes the style of the work. For example, Gogol’s style is characterized mainly by maximally filled space, as we discussed above. We find a somewhat lesser, but still significant saturation of space with objects and things in Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “Count Nulin”), Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Gorky, Bulgakov. But in the style system, for example, Lermontov, the space is practically not filled. Even in “A Hero of Our Time,” not to mention such works as “The Demon,” “Mtsyri,” and “Boyarin Orsha,” we cannot imagine a single specific interior, and the landscape is most often abstract and fragmentary. There is also no substantive saturation of space in such writers as L.N. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. Nabokov, A. Platonov, F. Iskander and others.
The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events (by “events” we mean not only external, but also internal, psychological ones). There are three possible options here: average, “normal” time filled with events; increased time intensity (the number of events per unit of time increases); reduced intensity (saturation of events is minimal). The first type of organization of artistic time is presented, for example, in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”, the novels of Turgenev, Tolstoy, Gorky.
The second type is in the works of Lermontov, Dostoevsky, Bulgakov. The third is from Gogol, Goncharov, Leskov, Chekhov.
Increased saturation of artistic space is combined, as a rule, with a reduced intensity of artistic time, and vice versa: reduced occupancy of space - with increased saturation of time.
For literature as a temporary (dynamic) art form, the organization of artistic time is, in principle, more important than the organization of space. The most important problem here becomes the relationship between the time depicted and the time of the image. Literary reproduction of any process or event requires a certain time, which, of course, varies depending on the individual pace of reading, but still has some certainty and in one way or another correlates with the time of the depicted process. Thus, Gorky’s “The Life of Klim Samgin,” which covers forty years of “real” time, requires, of course, a much shorter period of time to read.
Pictured time and image time or, otherwise, real" and artistic time, as a rule, do not coincide, which often creates significant artistic effects. For example, in Gogol’s “The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich,” about a decade and a half passes between the main events of the plot and the last visit of the narrator to Mirgorod, which are extremely sparingly noted in the text (of the events of this period, only the deaths of judge Demyan Demyanovich and crooked Ivan Ivanovich). But these years were not completely empty: all this time the litigation continued, the main characters grew old and approached inevitable death, still busy with the same “business”, in comparison with which even eating melon or drinking tea in a pond seems like meaningful activities. The time interval prepares and enhances sad mood finale: what was only funny at first becomes sad and almost tragic after a decade and a half.
In the literature there are often quite difficult relationships between real and artistic time. Yes, in some cases real time in general can be equal to zero: this is observed, for example, with various types of descriptions. Such time is called eventless. But the event time in which at least something happens is internally heterogeneous. In one case, we have events and actions that significantly change either a person, or relationships between people, or the situation as a whole - such time is called plot time. In another case, a picture of sustainable existence is drawn, i.e. actions and deeds that are repeated day after day, year after year. In the System of such artistic time, which is often called “chronicle-everyday”, practically nothing changes. The dynamics of such time are as conditional as possible, and its function is to reproduce a stable way of life. Good example Such a temporary organization is the image of the cultural and everyday way of life of the Larin family in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” (“They kept in a peaceful life // Habits of dear old times ...”). Here, as in some other places in the novel (the depiction of Onegin’s daily activities in the city and in the countryside, for example), it is not dynamics that are reproduced, but statics, something that does not happen once, but always happens.
The ability to determine the type of artistic time in specific work- Very important thing. The ratio of eventless (“zero”) time, chronicle-everyday and event-plot time largely determines the tempo organization of the work, which, in turn, determines the nature of aesthetic perception and forms the reader’s subjective time. So, " Dead Souls"Gogol, in which eventless and chronicle-everyday time predominates, create the impression of a slow pace and require an appropriate “reading mode” and a certain emotional mood: artistic time is leisurely, and so should the time of perception. For example, Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment” has a completely opposite tempo organization, in which event time predominates (let us recall that by “events” we include not only plot twists and turns, but also internal, psychological events). Accordingly, both the mode of its perception and the subjective pace of reading will be different: often the novel is simply read “absorbedly”, in one breath, especially for the first time.
The historical development of the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world reveals a very definite tendency towards complication. In the 19th and especially in the 20th centuries. writers use space-time composition as a special, conscious artistic device; a kind of “game” begins with time and space. Her idea, as a rule, is to compare different times and space, to identify both the characteristic properties of “here” and “now”, as well as general, universal laws human existence, independent of time and space; this is an understanding of the world in its unity. This artistic idea Chekhov expressed it very accurately and deeply in his story “The Student”: “The past,” he thought, “is connected with the present by a continuous chain of events that flow from one another. And it seemed to him that he had just seen both ends of this chain: he touched one end, as the other trembled<...>truth and beauty, which guided human life there, in the garden and in the courtyard of the high priest, continued uninterrupted to this day and, apparently, always constituted the main thing in human life and in general on earth.”
In the 20th century comparison, or, in Tolstoy’s apt word, “conjugation” of space-time coordinates has become characteristic of many writers - T. Mann, Faulkner, Bulgakov, Simonov, Aitmatov, etc. One of the most striking and artistic significant examples This trend is reflected in Tvardovsky’s poem “Beyond the Distance, the Distance.” The spatio-temporal composition creates in it an image of the epic unity of the world, in which there is a rightful place for the past, present, and future; and the small forge in Zagorye, and the great forge of the Urals, and Moscow, and Vladivostok, and the front, and the rear, and much more. In the same poem, Tvardovsky figuratively and very clearly formulated the principle of space-time composition:
There are two categories of travel:
One is to set off into the distance,
The other one is to sit in one’s place,
Flip back through the calendar.
This time there is a special reason
It will allow me to combine them.
And that one, and that one - by the way, both for me,
And my path is doubly beneficial.
These are the main elements and properties of that side artistic form, which we called the depicted world. It should be emphasized that the depicted world is extremely important side of the entire work of art: the stylistic, artistic originality works; Without understanding the features of the depicted world, it is difficult to analyze artistic content. We remind you of this because in the practice of school teaching, the depicted world is not singled out at all as a structural element of form, and therefore its analysis is often neglected. Meanwhile, as one of the leading writers of our time, W. Eco, said, “for storytelling, first of all, it is necessary to create a certain world, arranging it as best as possible and thinking through it in detail”*.
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* Eco U. Name of the rose. M., 1989. P. 438.
CONTROL QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant in literary criticism by the term “depicted world”? How is its non-identity with primary reality manifested?
2. What is an artistic detail? What groups are there? artistic details?
3. What is the difference between a detail part and a symbol part?
4. What is it used for? literary portrait? What types of portraits do you know? What is the difference between them?
5. What functions do images of nature perform in literature? What is a “city landscape” and why is it needed in a work?
6. What is the purpose of describing things in a work of art?
7. What is psychologism? Why is it used in fiction? What forms and techniques of psychologism do you know?
8. What are fantasy and life-like as forms of artistic convention?
9. What functions, forms and techniques of fiction do you know?
10. What are plot and descriptiveness?
11. What types of spatio-temporal organization of the depicted world do you know? What artistic effects does the writer extract from images of space and time? How do real time and artistic time relate?
Exercises
1. Determine what type of artistic details (detail-detail or detail-symbol) is typical for “Belkin’s Tales” by A.S. Pushkin, “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev, “The White Guard” by M.A. Bulgakov.
2. What type of portrait (portrait-description, portrait-comparison, portrait-impression) belongs to:
a) portrait of Pugachev (“ Captain's daughter» A.S. Pushkin),
b) portrait of Sobakevich (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol),
c) portrait of Svidrigailov (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky),
d) portraits of Gurov and Anna Sergeevna (“Lady with a Dog” by A.P. Chekhov),
e) portrait of Lenin (“V.I. Lenin” by M. Gorky),
f) portrait of Beach Saniel (“Running on the Waves” by A. Green).
3. In the examples from the previous exercise, establish the type of connection between the portrait and character traits:
– direct correspondence,
– contrast discrepancy,
- complex relationship.
4. Determine what functions the landscape performs in the following works:
N.M. Karamzin. Poor Lisa,
A. S. Pushkin. Gypsies,
I.S. Turgenev. Forest and steppe
A.P. Chekhov. Lady with a dog,
M. Gorky. Okurov town,
V.M. Shukshin. The desire to live.
5. In which of the following works does the image of things play a significant role? Determine the function of the world of things in these works.
A.S. Griboyedov. Woe from mind
N.V. Gogol. Old world landowners
L.N. Tolstoy. Resurrection,
A.A. Block. Twelve,
A.I. Solzhenitsyn. One day of Ivan Denisovich,
A. and B. Strugatsky. Predatory things of the century.
6. Identify the predominant forms and techniques of psychologism in the following works:
M.Yu. Lermontov. Hero of our time,
N.V. Gogol. Portrait,
I.S. Turgenev. Asya,
F.M. Dostoevsky. Teenager,
A.P. Chekhov. New dacha,
M. Gorky. At the bottom,
M.A. Bulgakov. Dog's heart.
7. Determine in which of the following works fantasy is an essential characteristic of the depicted world. In each case, analyze the predominant functions and techniques of fiction.
N.V. Gogol. The missing certificate
M.Yu. Lermontov. Masquerade,
I.S. Turgenev. Knocking!,
N.S. Leskov. The Enchanted Wanderer,
M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Chizhikovo grief, conscience has disappeared,
F.M. Dostoevsky. Bobok,
S.A. Yesenin. Black man,
M.A. Bulgakov. Fatal eggs.
8. Determine in which of the following works the essential characteristic of the depicted world is plot, descriptiveness and psychologism:
N.V. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich quarreled, Marriage,
M.Yu. Lermontov. Hero of our time,
A.N. Ostrovsky. Wolves and sheep
L.N. Tolstoy. After the ball,
And P. Chekhov. Gooseberry,
M. Gorky. Life of Klim Samgin.
9. How and why space-time effects are used in the following works:
A.S. Pushkin. Boris Godunov,
M.Yu. Lermontov. Daemon,
N.V. Gogol. Enchanted place
A.P. Chekhov. Gull,
M.A. Bulgakov. Diaboliad,
A.T. Tvardovsky. Ant Country,
A. and B. Strugatsky. Noon. XXII century.
Final task
Analyze the structure of the depicted world in two or three of the works below using the following algorithm:
1. For the depicted world the following are essential:
1.1. plot,
1.2. descriptiveness
1.2.1. analyze:
a) portraits,
b) landscapes,
c) the world of things.
1.3. psychologism
1.3.1. analyze:
a) forms and techniques of psychologism,
b) functions of psychologism.
2. For the depicted world it is essential
2.1. lifelikeness
2.1.1. determine lifelikeness functions,
2.2. fantastic
2.2.1. analyze:
a) type of fantastic imagery,
b) forms and techniques of fiction,
c) functions of fiction.
3. What type of artistic details predominates
3.1. details-details
3.1.1. analyze, using one or two examples, artistic features, the nature of the emotional impact and the functions of details,
3.2. details-symbols
3.2.1. analyze, using one or two examples, artistic features, the nature of the emotional impact and the functions of symbolic details.
4. Time and space in the work are characterized
4.1. concreteness
4.1.1. analyze the artistic impact and functions of a specific space and time,
4.2. abstractness
4.2.1. analyze the artistic impact and functions of abstract space and time,
4.3. abstractness and concreteness of time and space are combined in an artistic image
4.3.1.analyze the artistic impact and functions of such a combination.
Make a summary of the previous analysis about artistic features and the functions of the depicted world in this work.
Texts for analysis
A.S. Pushkin. Captain's daughter, Queen of Spades,
N.V. Gogol. May Night, or Drowned Woman, Nose, Dead Souls,
M.Yu. Lermontov. Demon, Hero of our time,
I.S. Turgenev. Fathers and Sons,
N.S. Leskov. Old years in the village of Plodomasovo, Enchanted wanderer,
I.A. Goncharov. Oblomov,
ON THE. Nekrasov. Who lives well in Rus',
L.N. Tolstoy. Childhood, Death of Ivan Ilyich,
F.M. Dostoevsky. Crime and Punishment,
A.P. Chekhov. On matters of service, Bishop,
E. Zamyatin. We,
M.A. Bulgakov. Dog's heart,
A.T. Tvardovsky. Terkin in the next world,
A. I. Solzhenitsyn. One day of Ivan Denisovich.
Event in a literary text. Plot and non-plot narration. Features of plot construction: plot components (plot, course of action, climax, denouement - if any), sequence of main components. The relationship between plot and plot. Plot motives. System of motives. Types of plots.
Difference between " plot" And " plot“is defined differently, some literary scholars do not see a fundamental difference between these concepts, while for others, “plot” is the sequence of events as they occur, and “plot” is the sequence in which the author arranges them.
Fable– the factual side of the narrative, those events, incidents, actions, states in their causal and chronological sequence. The term “plot” refers to what is preserved as the “base”, “core” of the narrative.
Plot- this is a reflection of the dynamics of reality in the form of the action unfolding in the work, in the form of internally related (causal-temporal) actions of characters, events that form a unity, constituting some complete whole. The plot is a form of theme development - an artistically constructed distribution of events.
The driving force behind the development of the plot, as a rule, is conflict(literally “clash”), a conflicting life situation placed by the writer at the center of the work. In a broad sense conflict should be called that system of contradictions that organizes a work of art into a certain unity, that struggle of images, characters, ideas, which unfolds especially widely and fully in epic and dramatic works
Conflict- a more or less acute contradiction or clash between characters and their characters, or between characters and circumstances, or within the character and consciousness of a character or lyrical subject; it is the central moment not only of epic and dramatic action, but also of lyrical experience.
There are different types of conflicts: between individual characters; between character and environment; psychological. The conflict can be external (the hero’s struggle with forces opposing him) and internal (the hero’s struggle with himself in the mind). There are plots based only on internal conflicts (“psychological”, “intellectual”), the basis of the action in them is not events, but the vicissitudes of feelings, thoughts, experiences. One work can contain a combination of different types of conflicts. Sharply expressed contradictions, the opposition of forces acting in a product, are called collision.
Composition (architectonics) is the structure of a literary work, the composition and sequence of arrangement of its individual parts and elements (prologue, exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement, epilogue).
Prologue – introductory part literary work. The prologue reports the events that precede and motivate the main action, or explains the author's artistic intent.
Exposition- part of the work that precedes the beginning of the plot and is directly related to it. The exposition follows the arrangement of characters and circumstances, showing the reasons that “trigger” the plot conflict.
The beginning in the plot - the event that served as the beginning of the conflict in a work of art; an episode that determines the entire subsequent development of the action (in “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol, for example, the plot is the mayor’s message about the arrival of the inspector). The plot is present at the beginning of the work, indicating the beginning of the development of artistic action. As a rule, it immediately introduces the main conflict of the work, subsequently determining the entire narrative and plot. Sometimes the plot comes before the exposition (for example, the plot of the novel “Anna Karenina” by L. Tolstoy: “Everything was mixed up in the Oblonskys’ house”). The writer’s choice of one type of plot or another is determined by the style and genre system in terms of which he designs his work.
Climax– the point of highest rise, tension in the development of the plot (conflict).
Denouement– conflict resolution; it completes the struggle of contradictions that make up the content of the work. The denouement marks the victory of one side over the other. The effectiveness of the denouement is determined by the significance of the entire preceding struggle and the climactic severity of the episode preceding the denouement.
Epilogue- the final part of the work, which briefly reports on the fate of the heroes after the events depicted in it, and sometimes discusses the moral and philosophical aspects of what is depicted (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky).
The composition of a literary work includes extra-plot elements– author's digressions, inserted episodes, various descriptions(portrait, landscape, world of things), etc., serving to create artistic images, the disclosure of which, in fact, is the entire work.
So, for example, episode as a relatively completed and independent part of the work, which depicts a completed event or an important moment in the fate of the character, can become an integral link in the problems of the work or an important part of its general idea.
Scenery in a work of art it is not just a picture of nature, a description of part of the real environment in which the action takes place. The role of landscape in a work is not limited to depicting the scene of action. It serves to create a certain mood; is a way of expressing the author’s position (for example, in the story “Date” by I.S. Turgenev). The landscape can emphasize or convey the mental state of the characters, while the internal state of a person is likened to or contrasted with the life of nature. The landscape can be rural, urban, industrial, marine, historical (pictures of the past), fantastic (the image of the future), etc. Landscape can also perform a social function (for example, the landscape in the 3rd chapter of I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”, the city landscape in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment”). In lyric poetry, landscape usually has an independent meaning and reflects the perception of nature by the lyrical hero or lyrical subject.
Even small artistic detail in a literary work it often plays an important role and performs diverse functions: it can serve as an important addition to characterize the characters and their psychological state; be an expression of the author's position; can serve to create big picture morals, have a symbolic meaning, etc. Artistic details in a work are classified into portrait, landscape, world of things, and psychological details.
Basic literature: 20, 22, 50, 54,68, 69, 80, 86, 90
Further reading: 27, 28, 48, 58
