On the one hand, when working on a drama, the means that are in the writer's arsenal are used, but, on the other hand, the work should not be literary. The author describes the events in such a way that the person who will read the test can see everything that happens in his imagination. For example, instead of "they sat at the bar for a very long time" you can write "they drank six beers each", etc.
In drama, what is happening is shown not through inner reflections, but through an external action. Moreover, all events take place in the present time.
Also, certain restrictions are imposed on the volume of the work, because. it must be presented on stage within the allotted time (up to a maximum of 3-4 hours).
The requirements of drama, as a stage art, leave their mark on the behavior, gestures, words of the characters, which are often exaggerated. What cannot happen in life in a few hours, in drama it can very well. At the same time, the audience will not be surprised by the conventionality, implausibility, because this genre initially allows them to a certain extent.
In the days of books that were expensive and inaccessible to many, drama (as a public performance) was the leading form of artistic reproduction of life. However, with the development of printing technology, it has lost ground to epic genres. Nevertheless, even today, dramatic works remain in demand among society. The main audience of the drama is, of course, theatergoers and moviegoers. Moreover, the number of the latter exceeds the number of readers.
Depending on the method of staging, dramatic works can be in the form of plays and scripts. All dramatic works intended to be performed from the theatrical stage are called plays (French pi èce). Dramatic works based on which films are made are scripts. Both plays and scripts contain author's notes to indicate the time and place of action, indicate age, appearance heroes, etc.
The structure of the play or script follows the structure of the story. Usually, parts of a play are designated as an act (action), a phenomenon, an episode, a picture.
The main genres of dramatic works:
- drama,
- tragedy
- comedy
- tragicomedy
- farce
- vaudeville
- sketch.
Drama
Drama is a literary work depicting a serious conflict between actors or between actors and society. The relationship between characters (heroes and society) in works of this genre is always full of drama. In the course of the development of the plot, there is an intense struggle both within the individual characters and between them.
Although the conflict is very serious in the drama, it can nevertheless be resolved. This circumstance explains the intrigue, the tense expectation of the audience: whether the hero (heroes) will be able to get out of the situation or not.
Drama is characterized by a description of the real Everyday life, the formulation of "mortal" questions of human existence, a deep disclosure of characters, inner world characters.
There are such types of drama as historical, social, philosophical. Drama is a melodrama. In it, the characters are clearly divided into positive and negative.
Wide famous dramas: "Othello" by W. Shakespeare, "At the Bottom" by M. Gorky, "Cat on a Hot Roof" by T. Williams.
Tragedy
Tragedy (from the Greek tragos ode - “goat song”) is a literary dramatic work based on an irreconcilable life conflict. Tragedy is characterized by a tense struggle of strong characters and passions, which ends in a catastrophic outcome for the characters (usually death).
The conflict of a tragedy is usually very deep, has a universal meaning and can be symbolic. The protagonist, as a rule, suffers deeply (including from hopelessness), his fate is unhappy.
The text of the tragedy often sounds pathetic. Many tragedies are written in verse.
Wide famous tragedies: "Chained Prometheus" by Aeschylus, "Romeo and Juliet" by W. Shakespeare, "Thunderstorm" by A. Ostrovsky.
Comedy
Comedy (from the Greek komos ode - "merry song") is a literary dramatic work in which characters, situations and actions are presented comically, using humor and satire. At the same time, the characters can be quite sad or sad.
Usually comedy presents everything ugly and ridiculous, funny and awkward, ridicules social or domestic vices.
Comedy is subdivided into the comedy of masks, positions, characters. Also this genre includes farce, vaudeville, sideshow, sketch.
A comedy of situations (comedy of situations, situational comedy) is a dramatic comedy work in which events and circumstances are the source of the funny.
A comedy of characters (comedy of manners) is a dramatic comedy work in which the source of humor is the inner essence of characters (morals), funny and ugly one-sidedness, an exaggerated trait or passion (vice, defect).
A farce is a light comedy that uses simple comic techniques and is designed for a rough taste. Usually a farce is used in a circus lunade.
Vaudeville is a light comedy with entertaining intrigue, which has a large number of dance numbers and songs. In the US, vaudeville is called a musical. IN modern Russia it is also commonly said "musical", implying vaudeville.
An interlude is a small comic scene that is played between the actions of the main performance or performance.
Sketch (English sketch - “sketch, sketch, sketch”) is a short comedy work with two or three characters. Usually, the presentation of sketches is resorted to on the stage and television.
Wide famous comedies: "Frogs" by Aristophanes, "Inspector General" by N. Gogol, "Woe from Wit" by A. Griboyedov.
Famous TV sketch shows: "Our Russia", "Town", "Monty Python's Flying Circus".
Tragicomedy
Tragicomedy is a literary dramatic work in which a tragic plot is depicted in a comic form or is a random jumble of tragic and comical elements. In tragicomedy, serious episodes are combined with funny ones, sublime characters are set off by comic characters. The main method of tragicomedy is the grotesque.
We can say that "tragicomedy is the funny in the tragic" or vice versa, "the tragic in the funny."
Widely known tragicomedies: "Alcestis" by Euripides, "The Tempest" by V. Shakespeare, "The Cherry Orchard" by A. Chekhov, the films "Forrest Gump", "The Great Dictator", "The Same Munchazen".
More detailed information on this topic can be found in the books of A. Nazaikin
Drama (other Greek drama - action) is a kind of literature that reflects life in actions taking place in the present.
Dramatic works are intended to be staged, this determines the specific features of the drama:
1) the absence of a narrative-descriptive image;
3) main text dramatic work presented in the form of replicas of characters (monologue and dialogue);
4) drama as a kind of literature does not have such a variety of artistic and visual means as epic: speech and deed are the main means of creating the image of a hero;
5) the volume of the text and the duration of the action is limited by the stage framework;
6) requirements performing arts such a feature of the drama as a kind of exaggeration (hyperbolization) was also dictated: “exaggeration of events, exaggeration of feelings and exaggeration of expressions” (L.N. Tolstoy) - in other words, theatrical showiness, increased expressiveness; the viewer of the play feels the conditionality of what is happening, which was very well said by A.S. Pushkin: “The very essence of dramatic art excludes plausibility... when reading a poem, a novel, we can often forget ourselves and believe that the incident described is not fiction, but the truth. In an ode, in an elegy, we can think that the poet portrayed his real feelings, in real circumstances. But where is the credibility in a building divided into two parts, of which one is filled with spectators who have agreed etc.
Drama (ancient Greek δρᾶμα - act, action) - one of three genera Literature, along with the epic and lyrics, belongs simultaneously to two types of art: literature and theater. Intended to be played on stage, drama differs formally from epic and lyric poetry in that the text in it is presented in the form of replicas of characters and author's remarks and, as a rule, is divided into actions and phenomena. Any literary work built in a dialogical form, including comedy, tragedy, drama (as a genre), farce, vaudeville, etc., refers to drama in one way or another.
Since ancient times, it has existed in folklore or literary form among various peoples; independently of each other, the ancient Greeks, the ancient Indians, the Chinese, the Japanese, and the Indians of America created their own dramatic traditions.
Literally translated from ancient Greek, drama means "action".
Drama types tragedy drama (genre) drama for reading (play for reading)
Melodrama hierodrama mystery comedy vaudeville farce zaju
Drama history The rudiments of drama - in primitive poetry, in which the elements of lyrics, epic and drama that emerged later merged in connection with music and mimic movements. Earlier than among other peoples, drama as a special kind of poetry was formed among the Hindus and Greeks.
Dionysian dances
Greek drama, which develops serious religious and mythological plots (tragedy) and funny ones drawn from modern life (comedy), reaches high perfection and in the 16th century is a model for European drama, which until that time artlessly processed religious and narrative secular plots (mysteries, school dramas and interludes, fastnachtspiel, sottises).
French playwrights, imitating the Greek ones, strictly adhered to certain provisions that were considered invariable for the aesthetic dignity of the drama, such are: the unity of time and place; the duration of the episode depicted on the stage should not exceed a day; the action must take place in the same place; the drama should develop correctly in 3-5 acts, from the plot (finding out the initial position and characters of the characters) through the middle vicissitudes (changes in positions and relationships) to the denouement (usually a disaster); the number of actors is very limited (usually 3 to 5); these are exclusively the highest representatives of society (kings, queens, princes and princesses) and their closest servants, confidants, who are introduced onto the stage for the convenience of conducting dialogue and making remarks. These are the main features of the French classical drama(Cornel, Racine).
The strictness of the requirements of the classical style was already less respected in comedies (Molière, Lope de Vega, Beaumarchais), which gradually moved from conventionality to the depiction of ordinary life (genre). Shakespeare's work, free from classical conventions, opened up new paths for drama. The end of the 18th and the first half of the 19th century were marked by the appearance of romantic and national dramas: Lessing, Schiller, Goethe, Hugo, Kleist, Grabbe.
In the second half of the 19th century, realism prevailed in European drama (Dumas son, Ogier, Sardou, Paleron, Ibsen, Suderman, Schnitzler, Hauptmann, Beyerlein).
In the latest quarter XIX century, under the influence of Ibsen and Maeterlinck, symbolism began to take hold of the European scene (Hauptmann, Pshibyshevsky, Bar, D'Annunzio, Hoffmannsthal).
The design of a dramatic work Unlike other prose and poetry works, dramatic works have a rigidly defined structure. A dramatic work consists of alternating blocks of text, each with its own purpose, and highlighted with typography so that they can be easily distinguished from each other. Dramatic text may include the following blocks:
The list of characters is usually located before the main text of the work. In it, if necessary, a brief description of the hero is given (age, features of appearance, etc.)
External remarks - a description of the action, the situation, the appearance and departure of the characters. Often typed either in a reduced size, or in the same font as the replicas, but in a larger format. In the external remark, the names of the heroes can be given, and if the hero appears for the first time, his name is additionally highlighted. Example:
The room, which is still called the nursery. One of the doors leads to Anna's room. Dawn, soon the sun will rise. It's already May, the cherry trees are blooming, but it's cold in the garden, it's a matinee. The windows in the room are closed.
Enter Dunyasha with a candle and Lopakhin with a book in his hand.
Replicas are the words spoken by the characters. Remarks must be preceded by the name of the actor and may include internal remarks. Example:
Dunyasha. I thought you left. (Listens.) Here, it seems, they are already on their way.
LOPAKHIN (listening). No ... get luggage, then yes ...
Internal remarks, unlike external remarks, briefly describe the actions that occur during the pronunciation of a replica by the hero, or the features of the pronunciation. If some complex action occurs during the utterance of a cue, it should be described using an external cue, while indicating either in the remark itself or in the cue with the help of an internal remark that the actor continues to speak during the action. An inside note refers only to a specific line of a specific actor. It is separated from the replica by brackets, it can be typed in italics.
The most common are two ways of designing dramatic works: book and cinema. If in book format different font styles, different sizes, etc. can be used to separate parts of a dramatic work, then in cinematic scenarios it is customary to use only a monospaced typewriter font, and to separate parts of a work, use padding, set to a different format, set by all capitals, discharge, etc. - that is, only those means that are available on a typewriter. This allowed the scripts to be modified many times as they were produced, while maintaining readability. .
Drama in Russia
Drama was brought to Russia from the West at the end of the 17th century. Independent dramatic literature appears only at the end of the 18th century. Until the first quarter of the 19th century, the classical direction prevailed in drama, both in tragedy and in comedy and comedy opera; best authors: Lomonosov, Knyaznin, Ozerov; I. Lukin's attempt to draw the attention of playwrights to the depiction of Russian life and customs remained in vain: all their plays are lifeless, stilted and alien to Russian reality, except for the famous "Undergrowth" and "Brigadier" by Fonvizin, "Yabeda" by Kapnist and some comedies by I. A. Krylov .
IN early XIX centuries, Shakhovskoy, Khmelnitsky, Zagoskin became imitators of light French drama and comedy, and the Dollmaker was a representative of the stilted patriotic drama. Griboyedov's comedy Woe from Wit, later Gogol's Inspector General, Marriage, become the basis of Russian everyday drama. After Gogol, even in vaudeville (D. Lensky, F. Koni, Sollogub, Karatygin), the desire to get closer to life is noticeable.
Ostrovsky gave a number of remarkable historical chronicles and everyday comedies. After him, Russian drama stood on solid ground; the most prominent playwrights: A. Sukhovo-Kobylin, I. S. Turgenev, A. Potekhin, A. Palm, V. Dyachenko, I. Chernyshev, V. Krylov, N. Ya. Solovyov, N. Chaev, gr. A. Tolstoy, c. L. Tolstoy, D. Averkiev, P. Boborykin, Prince Sumbatov, Novezhin, N. Gnedich, Shpazhinsky, Evt. Karpov, V. Tikhonov, I. Shcheglov, Vl. Nemirovich-Danchenko, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, L. Andreev and others.
The dramatic genre of literature has three main genres: tragedy, comedy and drama in the narrow sense of the word, but it also has such genres as vaudeville, melodrama, tragicomedy.
Tragedy (gr.
Tragoidia, lit. - goat song) - "a dramatic genre based on the tragic collision of heroic characters, its tragic outcome and full of pathos ..."266.
The tragedy depicts reality as a bunch of internal contradictions, it reveals the conflicts of reality in an extremely intense form. This is a dramatic work, which is based on an irreconcilable life conflict, leading to the suffering and death of the hero. Thus, in a collision with the world of crimes, lies and hypocrisy, the bearer of advanced humanistic ideals perishes tragically. Danish prince Hamlet the hero tragedy of the same name W. Shakespeare.
In the struggle waged by tragic heroes, the heroic traits of human character are revealed with great fullness.
The genre of tragedy is long history. It arose from religious cult rites, was a stage performance of a myth. With the advent of the theater, tragedy emerged as an independent genre of dramatic art. The creators of tragedies were the ancient Greek playwrights of the 5th century. BC e. Sophocles, Euripides, Aeschylus, who left her perfect samples. They reflected the tragic collision of the traditions of the tribal system with the new social order. These conflicts were perceived and portrayed by playwrights mainly on mythological material. Hero ancient tragedy was drawn into an irresolvable conflict either by the will of an imperious fate (fate) or by the will of the gods. So, the hero of the tragedy of Aeschylus "Prometheus Chained" suffers because he violated the will of Zeus when he gave fire to people and taught them crafts. In the tragedy of Sophocles "Oedipus Rex" the hero is doomed to be a parricide, to marry his own mother. The ancient tragedy usually included five acts and was built in compliance with the "three unities" - place, time, action. Tragedies were written in verse and distinguished by loftiness of speech; its hero was a "high hero."
The great English playwright William Shakespeare is considered to be the founder of modern tragedy. At the heart of his tragedies "Romeo and Juliet", "Hamlet", "Othello", "King Lear", "Macbeth" are acute conflicts. Shakespeare's characters are no longer heroes of myths, but real people, struggling with real, not mythical forces and circumstances. In an effort to maximize the truthfulness and completeness of the reproduction of life, Shakespeare developed all the best sides ancient tragedy, at the same time freeing this genre from those conventions that lost their meaning in his era ( mythological plot, observance of the rule of "three unities"). The characters in Shakespeare's tragedies amaze with their vital persuasiveness. Formally, Shakespearean tragedy is far from antiquity. The tragedy of Shakespeare covers all aspects of reality. The personality of the hero of his tragedies is open, not fully defined, capable of change.
The next stage in the development of the tragedy genre is associated with the work of the French playwrights P. Corneille (Medea, Horace, The Death of Pompey, Oedipus, etc.) and J. Racine (Andromache, Iphigenia, Fed - ra" etc.) * They created brilliant samples of the tragedy of classicism - the tragedy of "high style" with the obligatory observance of the rule of "three unities".
At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. F. Schiller updated the "classic" style of tragedy, creating the tragedies "Don Carlos", "Mary Stuart", "The Maid of Orleans".
In the era of romanticism, the content of the tragedy becomes the life of a person with his spiritual quest. Tragic dramas were created by V. Hugo (Ernani, Lucrezia Borgia, Ruy Blas, The King Amuses himself, etc.), J. Byron (Two Fascari), M. Lermontov (Masquerade).
In Russia, the first tragedies within the framework of the poetics of classicism were created in the 18th century. A. Sumarokov (“Khorev”), M. Kheraskov (“Flames”), V. Ozerov (“Polyxena”), Y. Knyazhnin (“Dido”).
In the 19th century Russian realism also provided convincing examples of tragedy. The creator of the tragedy of a new type was A.
C. Pushkin. The main character of his tragedy "Boris Godunov", in which all the requirements of classicism were violated, was the people, shown as driving force stories. Comprehension of the tragic conflicts of reality was continued by A.N. Ostrovsky (“Guilty Without Guilt”, etc.) and L.N. Tolstoy ("The Power of Darkness").
At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. tragedy is resurrected high style”: in Russia - in the work of L. Andreev (“The Life of a Man”, “Tsar-Hunger”), Vyach. Ivanov ("Prometheus"), in the West - in the work of T.-S. Elliot ("Murder in the Cathedral"), P. Claudel ("Annunciation"), G. Hauptmann ("Rats"). Later, in the 20th century, in the work of J.-P. Sartre ("Flies"), J. Anouilh ("Antigone").
Tragic conflicts in Russian literature of the XX century. were reflected in the dramaturgy of M. Bulgakov (“Days of the Turbins”, “Running”). In literature socialist realism they acquired a peculiar interpretation, since the conflict based on the irreconcilable clash of class enemies became dominant in them, and main character died in the name of an idea (“Optimistic Tragedy” by Vs. Vishnevsky, “Storm” by B.
N. Bill-Belotserkovsky, "Invasion" by L. Leonov, "Eagle on his shoulder" by I. Selvinsky, etc.). On present stage development of Russian dramaturgy, the genre of tragedy is almost forgotten, but tragic conflicts reflected in many plays.
Comedy (lat. sotoesIa, Greek kotosIa, from kotoe - a merry procession and 6s1yo - a song) is a type of drama in which characters, situations and actions are presented in funny forms or imbued with the comic1.
Comedy, like tragedy, originated in ancient Greece. The "father" of comedy is the ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes (V-IV centuries BC). In his works, he ridiculed the greed, bloodthirstiness and immorality of the Athenian aristocracy, stood up for a peaceful patriarchal life (“Horsemen”, “Clouds”, “Lysistrata”, “Frogs”).
IN European literature Modern comedy continued the traditions of ancient literature, enriching them. In European literature, stable types of comedies stand out. For example, the comedy of masks, the commedia dell'arte (sottesia (le1marle), which appeared in Italy in the 16th century. Its characters were typical masks (Harlequin, Pulcinella, etc.). This genre influenced the work of J.-B. Molière, K Goldoni, C. Gozzi.
In Spain, the comedy “cloak and sword” was popular in the works of Lope de Vega (“Sheep Spring”), Tirso de Molina (“Don Gil Green Pants”), Calderon (“No Joking With Love”).
Art theorists have solved the issue of the social purpose of comedy in different ways. During the Renaissance, her role was limited to correcting morals. In the 19th century V. Belinsky noted that comedy not only denies, but also affirms: “True indignation at the contradictions and vulgarity of society is an ailment of a deep and noble soul that stands above its own society and carries the ideal of another, better society.” First of all, comedy was supposed to be aimed at ridiculing the ugly. But, along with laughter, invisible " honest face"comedy (according to N.V. Gogol, the only honest face of his comedy" The Government Inspector "was laughter), it could have "noble comedy", symbolizing a positive beginning, represented, for example, in the image of Chatsky in Griboedov, Figaro in Beaumarchais, Falstaff in Shakespeare.
The art of comedy achieved significant success in the work of W. Shakespeare (“Twelfth Night”, “The Taming of the Shrew”, etc.). The playwright expressed in them the Renaissance idea of the irresistible power of nature over human heart. The ugliness in his comedies was funny, they were fun, they had solid characters. strong people who know how to love. Shakespeare's comedies still do not leave the theater stages of the world.
Brilliant success was achieved by the French comedian of the 17th century. Molière is the author of the world-famous "Tartuffe", "The Tradesman in the Nobility", "The Miser". Beaumarchais became a famous comedian (“ barber of seville”, “The Marriage of Figaro”).
Folk comedy has existed in Russia for a long time. An outstanding comedian of the Russian Enlightenment was D.N. Fonvizin. His comedy "Undergrowth" mercilessly ridiculed the "wild nobility" reigning in the Prostakov family. Wrote comedies I.A. Krylov (“Lesson to daughters”, “Fashion shop”), ridiculing admiration for foreigners.
In the 19th century examples of satirical, social realistic comedy create A.S. Griboyedov ("Woe from Wit"), N.V. Gogol ("Inspector"), A.N. Ostrovsky (“Profitable place”, “Our people - we will get along”, etc.). Continuing the traditions of N. Gogol, A. Sukhovo-Kobylin in his trilogy (“Krechinsky’s Wedding”, “Deed”, “Tarelkin’s Death”) showed how the bureaucracy “embraced” the whole of Russia, bringing her troubles comparable to the damage caused Tatar-Mongol yoke and the invasion of Napoleon. Famous comedies by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The Death of Pazukhin”) and A.N. Tolstoy (“The Fruits of Enlightenment”), which in some way approached tragedy (they contain elements of tragicomedy).
Comedy has spawned different genre varieties. Distinguish between comedy of situations, comedy of intrigue, comedy of characters, comedy of manners ( household comedy), buffoonery comedy. There is no clear boundary between these genres. Most comedies combine elements of different genres, which deepens the comedy characters, diversifies and expands the very palette of the comic image. This is clearly demonstrated by Gogol in The Government Inspector. On the one hand, he created a "comedy of situations" based on a chain of ridiculous misunderstandings, of which the main one was the ridiculous mistake of six county officials who mistook Khlestakov's "elystratishka", "kestrel" for a powerful auditor, which was the source of many comic situations. On the other hand, the comic effect aroused by various absurd situations in life far from exhausts the content of The Inspector General. After all, the reason for the mistake of county officials lies in their personal qualities? - in their cowardice, spiritual rudeness, mental limitations - and in the essence of Khlestakov's character, who, while living in St. Petersburg, learned the behavior of officials. Before us is a bright "comedy of characters", more precisely, a comedy of realistically written social types presented in typical circumstances.
In terms of genre, there are also satirical comedies (“Undergrowth” by Fonvizin, “Inspector General” by Gogol) and high, close to drama. The action of these comedies does not contain funny situations. In Russian dramaturgy, this is primarily "Woe from Wit" by A. Griboyedov. IN unrequited love Chatsky to Sofya there is nothing comical, but the situation in which the romantic young man put himself is comical. The position of the educated and progressive-minded Chatsky in the society of the Famusovs and the Silent Ones is dramatic. Distinguish and lyrical comedies, an example of which is "The Cherry Orchard" by A.P. Chekhov.
At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. comedies appear, characterized by increased psychologism, installation on the image of complicated characters. These include “comedies of ideas” by B. Shaw (“Pygmalion”, “Millionaire”, etc.), “comedies of moods” by A.P. Chekhov (“The Cherry Orchard”), tragicomedies by L. Pirandello (“Six characters in search of an author ”), J. Anuya (“Wild Woman”).
In the XX century. Russian avant-gardism declares itself, including in the field of dramaturgy, the roots of which undoubtedly go back to folklore. However, the folklore beginning is already found in the plays of V. Kapnist, D. Fonvizin, in the satire of I. Krylov, N. Gogol, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, whose traditions in the 20th century continued M. Bulgakov ("Crimson Island", "Zoyka's Apartment", "Adam and Eve"), N. Erdman ("Suicide", "Mandate"), A. Platonov ("Barrel Organ").
In the Russian avant-garde of the XX century. conventionally, there are three stages: futuristic (“Zangezi” by V. Khlebnikov, “Victory over the Sun” by A. Kruchenykh, “Mystery-buff” by V. Mayakovsky), post-futuristic (Oberiut theater of absurdity: “Elizabeth to you” by D. Kharms, Ivanovs' Christmas Tree by A. Vvedensky) and contemporary avant-garde dramaturgy (A. Artaud, N. Sadur, A. Shipenko, A. Slapovsky, A. Zheleztsov, I. Savelyev, L. Petrushevskaya, E. Gremina and others. ).
Avant-garde tendencies in modern drama are the subject of literary studies. For example, M.I. Gromova, sees the origins of this phenomenon in the fact that in the 20s of the XX century. attempts to create an "alternative" art (Oberiut theater), which long years went underground, giving rise to “samizdat” and “dissidence”, and in the 70s (the years of stagnation) it was formed on the stages of numerous “underground” studios, which received the right to work legally in the 90s (the years of perestroika), when it became possible to get acquainted with Western European avant-garde dramaturgy of all types: "the theater of the absurd", "the theater of cruelty", "the theater of paradox", "happening", etc. V. Denisov's play "Six Ghosts on the Piano" was staged on the stage of the Studio "Laboratory" (her the content is inspired by a painting by Salvador Dali). Critics were struck by the cruel absurd reality of the plays by A. Galin (“Stars in the Morning Sky”, “Sorry”, “Titul”), A. Dudarev (“Dump”), E. Radzinsky (“ Sport games 1981", "Our Decameron", "I'm standing at the restaurant"), N. Sadur ("Lunar Wolves"),
A. Kazantsev ("Dreams of Evgenia"), A. Zheleztsov ("Askold's Grave", "Nail"), A. Buravsky ("Russian Teacher"). Plays of this kind gave reason to critic E. Sokolyansky to conclude: “It seems that the only thing that a dramatic writer can convey in the current conditions is a certain madness of the moment. That is, the feeling of a turning point in history with the triumph of chaos. All of these plays have elements of tragicomedy. Tragicomedy is a type of dramatic works (drama as a kind), which has the features of both tragedy and comedy, which distinguishes tragicomedy from forms intermediate between tragedy and comedy, that is, from drama as a species.
Tragicomedy renounces the moral absolute of comedy and tragedy. The attitude underlying it is associated with a sense of the relativity of the existing criteria of life. Overestimation of moral principles leads to uncertainty and even rejection of them; subjective and objective beginnings are blurred; an unclear understanding of reality can cause interest in it or complete indifference and even recognition of the illogicality of the world. The tragicomic worldview dominates in them at turning points in history, although the tragicomic beginning was already present in the dramaturgy of Euripides (Alcestis, Ion).
The "pure" type of tragicomedy became characteristic of the drama of the Baroque and Mannerism (F. Beaumont, J. Fletcher). Its signs are a combination of funny and serious episodes, a mixture of sublime and comic characters, the presence of pastoral motives, the idealization of friendship and love, an intricate action with unexpected situations, the predominant role of chance in the fate of the characters, the heroes are not endowed with constancy of character, but their images often emphasize one feature that turns the character into a type.
In dramaturgy late XIX V. in the works of G. Ibsen, Yu.A. Strindberg, G. Hauptmann, A. Chekhov, L. Pirandello, in the XX century. - G. Lorca, J. Giraudoux, J. Anouilh, E. Ionesco, S. Beckett, the tragicomic element is intensified, as in the Russian avant-garde dramaturgy of the 20th century.
Modern tragicomedy does not have clear genre features and is characterized by a “tragicomic effect”, which is created by showing reality both in tragic and comic coverage, the discrepancy between the hero and the situation (the tragic situation is a comic hero, or vice versa, as in Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit »); insolvability internal conflict(the plot presupposes the continuation of the action; the author refrains from the final assessment), a sense of the absurdity of being.
A special type of entertaining comedy is vaudeville (fr. vaudeville from Vau de Vire - the name of the valley in Normandy, where this genre of theatrical art appeared at the beginning of the 15th century) - a play of domestic content with entertaining development an action in which witty dialogue alternates with dances and couplet songs.
In France, vaudeville was written by E. Labiche, O. Scribe. In Russia, vaudeville appeared at the beginning of the 19th century. He inherited from the comic opera of the XVIII century. interest in national subjects. Vaudeville wrote to A.S. Griboedov ("Feigned infidelity"), D.T. Lensky ("Lev Gurych Sinichkin"), V.A. Sollogub (“Coachman, or the Prank of a Hussar Officer”), P.A. Karatygin (“Borrowed wives”, “The eccentric dead man”), N.A. Nekrasov ("Petersburg usurer"), A.P. Chekhov ("Bear", "Proposal", "Wedding", "On the dangers of tobacco"). In the second half of the XIX century.
Vaudeville was supplanted by operetta. Interest in it returned at the end of the 20th century.
In theatrical art of the XIX-XX centuries. comedies-vaudevilles of light content with external comic devices began to be called farces. folk theater and literature of Western European countries of the XIV-XVI centuries, primarily France. He was distinguished by a comic, often satirical orientation, realistic concreteness, freethinking; full of buffoonery. Its heroes were the townspeople. Farce mask images were devoid of an individual beginning (farce is close to the comedy of masks), although they were the first attempt to create social types268.
The means of creating a comic (satirical) effect are speech comics - alogism, incongruity of situations, parody, playing with paradoxes, irony, in the latest comedy - humor, irony, sarcasm, grotesque, wit, wit, pun.
Wit is based on a sense of humor (in fact, this is one and the same thing) - a special associative ability, the ability to critically approach the subject, notice the absurdity, quickly respond to it269. The paradox "expresses an idea that at first glance is absurd, but, as it turns out later, to a certain extent fair"1. For example, in Gogol's "Marriage" after the shameful flight Podkolesina Arina Panteleymonovna reprimands Kochkarev: Yes, I live in my sixth decade, but I have not yet made such a fear. Yes, I am for that, father, I will spit in your face if you are an honest person. Yes, after that you are a scoundrel, if you are an honest person. Shame the girl in front of the whole world!
Features of the grotesque style are characteristic of many comedies created in Russian literature of the 20th century. (“Suicide” by N. Erdman, “Zoyka’s apartment” by M. Bulgakov, “The house that Swift built” by G. Gorin). E. Schwartz (“Dragon”, “Shadow”) used comic allegory and a satirical symbol in his fairy tale plays.
Drama as a genre appeared later than tragedy and comedy. Like tragedy, it tends to recreate sharp contradictions. How kind dramatic kind it became widespread in Europe during the Enlightenment and at the same time was comprehended as a genre. An independent genre drama became in the second half of the XVIII century. among the enlighteners (petty-bourgeois drama appeared in France and Germany). She showed interest in social structure life, to moral ideals democratic environment, to the psychology of the "average man".
During this period, tragic thinking is in crisis, replaced by a different view of the world, affirming the social activity of the individual. In the process of drama development, its inner drama thickens, a successful outcome is less and less common, the hero is at odds with society and with himself (for example, the plays of G. Ibsen, B. Shaw, M. Gorky, A. Chekhov).
Drama is a play with a sharp conflict, which, unlike the tragic, is not so sublime, more mundane, ordinary and somehow resolved. The specificity of the drama lies, firstly, in the fact that it is built on modern, and not on ancient material, and secondly, the drama establishes a new hero who rebelled against his fate and circumstances. The difference between drama and tragedy lies in the essence of the conflict: tragic conflicts are insoluble, because their resolution does not depend on the personal will of the person. tragic hero finds himself in a tragic situation unwittingly, and not because of a mistake he made. Dramatic conflicts, unlike tragic ones, are not insurmountable. They are based on the clash of characters with such forces, principles, traditions that oppose them from the outside. If the hero of a drama dies, then his death is in many ways an act of a voluntary decision, and not the result of a tragically hopeless situation. So, Katerina in A. Ostrovsky's "Thunderstorm", acutely worried that she had violated religious and moral norms, not being able to live in the oppressive atmosphere of the Kabanovs' house, rushes into the Volga. Such a decoupling was not mandatory; the obstacles to the rapprochement between Katerina and Boris cannot be considered insurmountable: the heroine's rebellion could have ended differently.
Drama flourished in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the era of romanticism, tragedy reigned in drama. The birth of drama is associated with the writers' appeal to contemporary social topics. Tragedy, as a rule, was created on historical material. The main character was a large historical figure, leading the fight in extremely unfavorable circumstances. The emergence of the dramatic genre characterized the increased interest in the knowledge of modern public life, the dramatic fate of a "private" person.
The range of drama is extraordinarily wide. The playwright depicts the everyday private life of people, their relationships, clashes caused by estate, property, class differences. In the realistic drama of the XIX century. predominantly psychological drama developed (dramas by A.N. Ostrovsky, G. Ibsen, and others). At the turn of the century, drama changed in the work of A.P. Chekhov ("Ivanov", "Three Sisters") with his mournfully ironic lyricism, using subtext. Similar trends are observed in the work of M. Maeterlinck with his hidden "tragedy of everyday life" ("The Blind", "Monna Witta").
In the literature of the XX century. the horizons of the drama have expanded significantly, its conflicts have become more complicated. In the dramaturgy of M. Gorky (“Petty Bourgeois”, “Enemies”, “Children of the Sun”, “Barbarians”), the problem of the responsibility of the intelligentsia for the fate of the people is posed, but it is considered mainly on the basis of family and everyday material.
In the West, dramas were created by R. Rolland, J. Priestley, Y. O "Neill, A. Miller, F. Durrenmatt, E. Albee, T. Williams.
The "element" of drama is modernity, private life people, situations based on solvable conflicts concerning the fate of individuals that do not affect problems of public importance.
There were such varieties of drama as the lyrical drama of M. Maeterlinck and A. Blok (The Pavilion, The Rose and the Cross), the intellectual drama of J.-P. Sartre, J. Anouilh, the drama of the absurd by E. Ionesco (“The Bald Singer”, “Chairs”), S. Beckett (“Waiting for Godot”, “The End of the Game”), oratorical, rally theater - the political theater of B. Brecht with his "epic" plays ("What is that soldier, what is this").
In the history of the Soviet theater, the political theater, whose traditions were laid down by V. Mayakovsky, V. Kirshon, A. Afinogenov, B. Lavrenev, K. Simonov, distinguished by a pronounced position of the author, took important place. In the 60s - 90s of the XX century. journalistic dramas appeared (“Man from outside” by I. Dvoretsky, “Minutes of one meeting” by A. Gelman, “Interview in Buenos Aires” by G. Borovik, “Further ... further ... further” by M. Shatrov) and documentary dramas (“Leaders” by G. Sokolovsky, “Joseph and Hope” by O. Kuchkina, “The Black Man, or Me, Poor Soso Dzhugashvili” by V. Korkiya, “Sixth of July” and “Blue Horses on Red Grass” by M. Shatrov , "Anna Ivanovna" by V. Shalamov, "The Republic of Labor" by A. Solzhenitsyn, etc.). In the genre of drama, such varieties as debate plays, dialogue plays, chronicle plays, parable plays, fairy tale plays and "new drama" appeared.
Separate varieties of drama merge with related genres, using their means of expression: with tragicomedy, farce, mask theater.
There is also such a genre as melodrama. Melodrama (from the Greek m?los - song, melody and drama - action, drama) - 1) the genre of drama, a play with sharp intrigue, exaggerated emotionality, a sharp opposition of good and evil, a moral and moral tendency; 2) a musical and dramatic work in which the monologues and dialogues of the characters are accompanied by music. J.J. Rousseau developed the principles of this genre and created its model - "Pygmalion"; an example of Russian melodrama is "Orpheus" by E. Fomin.
Melodrama originated in the 18th century. in France (plays by J.-M. Monvel and G. de Pixerécourt), reached its peak in the 30s and 40s XIX years century, later external entertainment began to prevail in it. Melodrama appeared in Russia in the 1920s. (plays by N.V. Kukolnik, N.A. Polevoy, etc.), interest in it revived in the 20s of the XX century. There are elements of melodrama in the work of A. Arbuzov (“Old-fashioned comedy”, “Tales of the Old Arbat”)270. Dramatic genres turned out to be very mobile.
Summing up what has been said about the genera, types and genres of literature, it should be noted that there are inter-generic and extra-generic forms. According to B.O. Korman, one can distinguish works in which the properties of two generic forms are combined - “two-generic formations”271.
For example, the epic beginning, according to V. Khalizev, is in the plays of A.N. Ostrovsky and B. Brecht, M. Maeterlinck and A. Blok created "lyrical dramas", the lyrical-epic principle in the poems became a well-known fact. Non-generic forms in literary criticism include essays, literature of the “stream of consciousness”, essayism, for example, “Experiments” by M. Montaigne, “Fallen Leaves” and “Solitary” by V. Rozanov (it tends to syncretism: the beginnings of the actual artistic in it are combined with journalistic and philosophical, as in the works of A. Remizov "Salting" and M. Prishvin "Eyes of the Earth").
So, V.E. Khalizev, “... there are distinguishable generic forms proper, traditional and undividedly dominating in literary creativity for many centuries, and “non-generic”, non-traditional forms, rooted in “post-romantic” art. The first interact with the second very actively, complementing each other. Today, the Platonic-Aristotelian-Hegelian triad (epos, lyrics, drama), apparently, is largely shaken and needs to be corrected. At the same time, there is no reason to declare the three types of literature habitually distinguished as obsolete, as is sometimes done with the light hand of the Italian philosopher and art theorist B. Croce. Among Russian literary critics, A.I. Beletsky: "For ancient literatures the terms epic, lyric, drama were not yet abstract. They denoted special, external ways of transmitting a work to a listening audience. Going into the book, poetry abandoned these modes of transmission, and gradually<...>types (meaning the types of literature. - V.Kh.) became more and more fiction. Is it necessary to continue the scientific existence of these fictions?" 1. Disagreeing with this, we note: literary works of all eras (including modern ones) have a certain generic specificity (epic, dramatic, lyrical form, or not rare in the 20th century forms of essay, "stream of consciousness", essay). Generic affiliation (or, on the contrary, the involvement of one of the "extra-generic" forms) largely determines the organization of the work, its formal, structural features. Therefore, the concept of "kind of literature" in the composition of theoretical poetics is inalienable and vital"2.? Control questions and tasks I 1.
What served as the basis for the allocation of three types of literature. What are the signs of an epic, lyrical, dramatic way of reproducing reality? 2.
Name the genres of artistic literature, give their characteristics. Tell us about the relationship between genera, species, genres of literary works. 3.
How is a story different from a novel and a short story? Give examples. 4.
What are the hallmarks of the novel? Give examples. 1 Beletsky A.I. Selected works on the theory of literature. G. 342. 2
Khalizev V.E. Theory of Literature. pp. 318 - 319.
Control questions and tasks 5.
Why, in your opinion, the novel and short story became the leading genres realistic literature? Their differences. 6.
Outline the article by M.M. Bakhtin "Epos and the novel: On the methodology of the study of the novel" (Appendix 1, p. 667). Complete the tasks and answer the questions suggested after the article. 7.
Gogol initially called "Dead Souls" a "novel", then - a "small epic". Why did he stop at defining the genre of his work as "poem"? 8.
Determine the features of the epic novel in the works "War and Peace" by L. Tolstoy and " Quiet Don» M. Sholokhov. 9.
Give genre definition N. Shmelev's work "The Summer of the Lord" and justify it (fairy tale novel, myth novel, legend novel, true story, myth-remembrance, free epic, spiritual novel). 10.
Read O. Mandelstam's article "The End of the Novel". SMandelstam O. Works: In 2 vols. M., 1990. S. 201-205). Using B. Pasternak's novel "Doctor Zhivago" as an example, explain what is the innovative approach of writers of the 20th century. to the problem of the modern novel. Is it possible to assert that "... the compositional measure of the novel is a human biography"? I. How would you define the genre of Bulgakov's The Master and Margarita, in which history and feuilleton, lyrics and myth, everyday life and fantasy (novel, comic epic, satirical utopia) are freely combined?
What are the features of lyrics as a kind of literature? 2.
Outline the article by V.E. Khalizeva "Lyric" (Appendix 1, p. 682). Prepare answers to the questions provided. 3.
Based on the article by L.Ya. Ginzburg “On Lyrics” (Appendix 1, p. 693) prepare a message “ Style features lyrics". Name the main lyrical and lyrical genres, indicate their differences. What is the classification of lyrics based on the thematic principle? 4.
Explain what the terms "suggestive lyrics" and "meditative lyrics" mean. Give examples. 5.
Read the article by A.N. Pashkurova “Poetics of pre-romantic elegy: “Time” by M.N. Muravyov” (Appendix 1, p. 704). Prepare the message “What path did the Russian elegy take in its development from pre-romanticism to romanticism?”. 6.
Tell us about the history of the development of the sonnet genre. 7.
Read the article by G.N. Esipenko “Studying the sonnet as a genre” (Literature at school. 2005. No. 8. P. 29-33) and complete the tasks proposed in it related to the analysis of sonnets by N. Gumilyov, I. Severyanin, I. Bunin (optional), and also write a poem in the form of a sonnet (perhaps in imitation of a poet). 8.
What ways of depicting life does A. Pushkin use in the poem "Gypsies"? 9.
What works are called lyroepic? On the example of one of the poems of V. Mayakovsky (“Man”, “Good!”), S. Yesenin (“Anna Onegin”) or A. Tvardovsky (“By the Right of Memory”), analyze how lyrical and epic elements are combined in them. 10.
What is the image of the lyrical heroine of the "Denisiev cycle" F.I. Tyutchev? 13.
Determine the features of the lyrical heroine in the poetry of M. Tsvetaeva and A. Akhmatova. 14.
Is it possible to talk about the peculiar "passivity" of the lyrical hero B. Pasternak, as R. Yakobson believed? 15.
How is the biography of A. Blok connected with his work? What evolution has the image of the lyrical hero undergone? 16.
Why has modern poetry lost most of its traditional genres?
Describe the division into genres in a dramatic way. 2.
Outline the article by V.E. Khalizeva "Drama" (Appendix 1, p. 713). Prepare answers to the questions provided. 3.
Tell us about the main stages in the development of the tragedy genre. 4.
What is the difference between drama and tragedy? 5.
Name the types of comedy. Give examples. 6.
Describe the "small" dramatic genres. Give examples. 7.
How do you understand the genre definition of A. Ostrovsky's plays? Can the dramas "Thunderstorm", "Dowry" be called classic tragedies? 8.
Define the genre of "The Cherry Orchard" by A.P. Chekhov (comedy, tragedy, farce, melodrama). 9.
On the example of one of the plays, analyze Chekhov's new approaches to the organization of dramatic action (decentralization storylines, refusal to divide characters into main and secondary ones) and techniques for creating individual characters (self-characteristics, monologues-cues, building a speech part of an image on a change in style key; "random" remarks in dialogues that emphasize instability psychological state characters, etc.). 10.
Read and analyze one of the plays by a contemporary playwright (optional). eleven.
Define the concept of "subtext" (see: Literary Encyclopedia terms and concepts. M., 2001. S. 755; Literary encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1987. S. 284). Give examples of lyrical and psychological subtexts in A.P. Chekhov (optional), in the novels of E. Hemingway, in the poems of M. Tsvetaeva (“Longing for the Motherland! For a long time ...”) and O. Mandelstam (“Slate Ode”).
Drama - (another Greek action, action) is one of the literary movements. Drama as a kind of literature, in contrast to lyrics and like epic, drama reproduces primarily the external world for the author - actions, relationships between people, conflicts. Unlike the epic, it has not a narrative, but a dialogical form. In it, as a rule, there are no internal monologues, author's characteristics of characters and direct author's comments of the depicted. In Aristotle's Poetics, drama is spoken of as the imitation of action through action, not storytelling. This provision has not been outdated to this day. Dramatic works are characterized by acute conflict situations that encourage characters to verbally - physical actions. The author's speech can sometimes be in the drama, but it is of an auxiliary nature. Sometimes the author briefly comments on the replicas of his characters, makes indications of their gestures, intonation.
Drama is closely associated with theatrical art and should meet the needs of the theatre.
Drama is seen as the crown literary creativity. Examples of drama are the play "Thunderstorm" by Ostrovsky, "At the Bottom" by Gorkov.
ABOUT dramatic genres one must speak without forgetting that drama itself is a genre that arose at the junction of literature and theatre. It is impossible to analyze them separately from each other. We have talked about drama enough, however, the significance of drama as theatrical action not given yet.
In order for any work to be called a drama, it must at least contain a conflict or a conflict situation. The conflict has the right to be both comical and tragic. Drama often contains a large amount of both. This is probably why it is often treated in specialized literature as an intermediate genre.
Drama can be psychological (both on stage and in literature), social, philosophical, based on everyday or historical conflict, and a combination of the above types is also often found, this will be especially characteristic of literary drama. Drama can also be national, so you can highlight the Spanish drama - it is sometimes also called the "drama of honor" or "the comedy of the cloak and sword", here everything depends entirely on what kind of conflict is developed in the drama. Drama genres can only appear in literature. There really aren't too many of them:
play
Comedy
Sideshow
Tragedy
Burlesque
Chronicle (historical, psychological, retrospective)
Scenario
Dramatic prose differs from ordinary prose primarily in that it contains a lot of constantly changing events, with a large number of characters, much more than, say, in an ordinary story, although the volume of the narrative may be the same. It is believed that the reader is able to remember no more than 5-7 acting characters, drama often violates this law, the reader of a dramatic work always has the opportunity to look at the flyleaf and see who exactly is the hero that he completely forgot about.
- ▲ kind of fiction genres of literature. epic genre. epic. prose is an artistic story about what l. events. prosaic (# works). fiction. lyrics. drama... Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language
This term has other meanings, see Drama. Not to be confused with Drama (a type of literature). Drama is a literary (dramatic), stage and cinematic genre. It has gained particular popularity in literature XVIII XXI centuries, ... ... Wikipedia
In art: Drama is a kind of literature (along with epic and lyrics); Drama is a kind of stage cinematic action; a genre that includes various subgenres, modifications (such as petty-bourgeois drama, drama of the absurd, etc.); Toponym(s): ... ... Wikipedia
D. as a poetic genus Origin D. Eastern D. Antique D. Medieval D. D. Renaissance From Renaissance to Classicism Elizabethan D. Spanish D. Classical D. Bourgeois D. Ro ... Literary Encyclopedia
Epos, poetry, drama. Determined by different features: from the point of view of ways of imitation of reality (Aristotle), types of content (F. Schiller, F. Schelling), categories of epistemology (objective subjective in G. V. F. Hegel), formal ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Drama (Greek dráma, literally - action), 1) one of the three types of literature (along with epic and lyrics; see Literary type). D. belongs simultaneously to the theater and literature: being the fundamental principle of the performance, it is also perceived in ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Modern Encyclopedia
Genus literary- GENUS LITERARY, one of the three groups of works of fiction epos, lyrics, drama. The tradition of generic division of literature was founded by Aristotle. Despite the fragility of the boundaries between genera and the abundance of intermediate forms (lyroepic ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
Epos, poetry, drama. It is determined according to various criteria: from the point of view of ways of imitation of reality (Aristotle), types of content (F. Schiller, F. Schelling), categories of epistemology (objective subjective in G. Hegel), formal features ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
GENUS, a (y), prev. about (in) kind and in (on) kind, pl. s, ov, husband. 1. Main public organization primitive communal system, united by blood relationship. Elder of the family. 2. A number of generations descending from one ancestor, as well as a generation in general ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
Books
- Pushkin, Tynyanov Yuri Nikolaevich. Yuri Nikolayevich Tynyanov (1894-1943) - an outstanding prose writer and literary critic - outwardly looked like Pushkin, which he was told about from his student years. Who knows, maybe it was this similarity that helped ...
