Plots of world literature (36 plots)
Literature is primarily an art, but at the same time it is information, albeit a very specific one. And the information volume of the world literature is constantly increasing, growing to more and more impressive sizes. But, unlike science and technology, from ideology, in fiction new information does not cancel or replace the previous one. (All masterpieces of world literature in summary. Plots and characters. Russian literature XIX century: Encyclopedic edition. - M.: Olimp; Publishing house ACT, 1996. - 832 p., p.11)
Thus, the volume of world literature that grows over time does not change in its essence - repetitive plots are used that reflect the main storylines of people's lives.
Each new era adds only an update in style and some character traits this era, including minor changes in the use of language and preferences.
Systematization, schematization, cataloging of the world's book treasures occupied analysts of all eras ... back in the 9th century, it was started by the Patriarch Photius of Constantinople, who compiled the Myriobiblion (translated as "Many Books" or as "Library") - a collection of brief descriptions of the works of Greek and Byzantine authors, including ecclesiastical, secular, historical, medical literature. It is noteworthy that the idea of such a universal, comprehensive library became relevant again a thousand and a hundred years later. In the works of Hermann Hesse, and especially in the short stories of Jorge Luis Borges, the image of "the world as a library" appears. (All the masterpieces of world literature in brief. Plots and characters. Russian literature of the 19th century: Encyclopedic edition. - M .: Olymp; Publishing house ACT, 1996. - 832 pp. 12)
The famous writer Jorge Luis Borges stated that there are only four plots and, accordingly, four heroes, whom he described in his short story "Four Cycles".
1. The oldest story is the story of a besieged city, which is stormed and defended by heroes. The defenders know that the city is doomed and resistance is futile. This is a story about Troy, and the main character, Achilles, knows that he will die without seeing victory. A rebel hero, the very fact of whose existence is a challenge to the surrounding reality. In addition to Achilles, the heroes of this plot are Siegfried, Hercules, Sigurd and others.
2. The second story is about the return. The story of Odysseus, who wandered the seas for ten years in an attempt to return home. The hero of these stories is a man rejected by society, endlessly wandering in an attempt to find himself - Don Quixote, Beowulf.
3. The third story is about the search. This story is somewhat similar to the second, but in this case the hero is not an outcast and does not oppose himself to society. Most famous example such a hero is Jason, sailing for the Golden Fleece.
4. The fourth story is about the suicide of God. Atys maims and kills himself, Odin sacrifices himself to Odin, to himself, hanging on a tree for nine days, nailed with a spear, Roman legionnaires crucify Christ. The hero of the "death of the gods" - losing or gaining faith, in search of faith - Zarathustra, Bulgakov's Master, Bolkonsky.
Another famous author Christopher Booker, in his book "The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories" ("Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories"), described seven basic plots, on the basis of which, in his opinion, all the books in the world are written.
1. "From rags to riches" - the name speaks for itself, the most striking example, familiar to everyone since childhood - Cinderella. Heroes - ordinary people, discovering something unusual in themselves, thanks to their own efforts or by coincidence, they find themselves “on top”.
2. "Adventure" - a difficult journey in search of an elusive goal. According to Booker, both Odysseus and Jason fall into this category, in addition, both "King Solomon's Mines" and "Around the World in Eighty Days" fall into this category.
3. "There and back." At the heart of the plot is the attempt of the hero, torn from the familiar world, to return home. This is Robinson Crusoe, and Alice Through the Looking-Glass, and many others.
4. "Comedy" - This is not just a general term, it is a certain kind of plot that develops according to its own rules. All Jane Austen novels fall into this category.
5. "Tragedy" - the climax is the death of the protagonist due to any character flaws, usually love passion or a thirst for power. These are, first of all, "Macbeth", "King Lear" and "Faust".
6. "Resurrection" - the hero is under the power of a curse or dark forces, and a miracle brings him out of this state. A striking example this story is also familiar to everyone since childhood - Sleeping Beauty, awakened by the kiss of the prince.
7. "Victory over the monster" - from the name it is clear what the plot is - the hero fights the monster, defeats him and receives a "prize" - treasures or love. Examples: Dracula, David and Goliath.
About a hundred years ago, the playwright Georges Polti compiled his list of subjects from thirty-six points (by the way, the number thirty-six was first proposed by Aristotle and much later supported by Victor Hugo). Thirty-six plots and themes of Polti cover mainly dramaturgy and tragedies. There were disputes around this list, it was repeatedly criticized, but no one tried to protest the number 36 itself.
1. PLEASE. Elements of the situation: 1) the persecutor, 2) the persecuted and begging for protection, help, shelter, forgiveness, etc., 3) the force on which it depends to provide protection, etc., while the force that does not immediately decide to defend , hesitant, unsure of herself, which is why she has to beg (thus increasing the emotional impact of the situation), the more she hesitates and does not dare to help. Examples: 1) a fleeing person begs someone who can save him from enemies, 2) begs for shelter in order to die in it, 3) a shipwrecked person asks for shelter, 4) asks for someone in power for dear, close people, 5) asks for one relative for another relative, etc.
2. SALVATION. Elements of the situation: 1) unhappy, 2) threatening, persecuting, 3) savior. This situation differs from the previous one in that there the persecuted resorted to the hesitant power, which had to be pleaded, but here the savior appears unexpectedly and saves the unfortunate without hesitation. Examples: 1) decoupling famous fairy tale about Bluebeard. 2) saving a person sentenced to death or generally in mortal danger, etc.
3. REVENGE PURSUING CRIME. Elements of the situation: 1) avenger, 2) guilty, 3) crime. Examples: 1) blood feud, 2) revenge on a rival or rival or lover, or mistress on the basis of jealousy.
4. REVENGE OF A CLOSE PERSON FOR ANOTHER CLOSE PERSON OR RELATED PEOPLE. Elements of the situation: 1) living memory about the offense inflicted on another close person, harm, about the victims suffered by him for the sake of his loved ones, 2) a vengeful relative, 3) guilty of these insults, harm, etc. - a relative. Examples: 1) revenge on the father for the mother or mother for the father, 2) revenge on the brothers for their son, 3) father for the husband, 4) husband for the son, etc. A classic example: Hamlet's revenge on his stepfather and mother for his murdered father .
5. Haunted. Elements of the situation: 1) the crime committed or fatal mistake and expected punishment, retribution, 2) hiding from punishment, retribution for a crime or mistake. Examples: 1) persecuted by the authorities for politics (for example, Schiller's "Robbers", the history of the revolutionary struggle in the underground), 2) persecuted for robbery ( Detective stories), 3) persecuted for a mistake in love (“Don Juan” by Moliere, alimentary stories, etc.), 4) a hero pursued by a superior force (“Chained Prometheus” by Aeschylus, etc.).
6. SUDDEN DISASTER. Elements of the situation: 1) the victorious enemy, appearing personally; or a messenger bringing terrible news of defeat, collapse, etc., 2) a ruler defeated by a winner or slain by news, a powerful banker, an industrial king, etc. Examples: 1) the fall of Napoleon, 2) Zola's "Money", 3 ) "The End of Tartarin" by Anphonse Daudet, etc.
7. Victim (i.e., someone, the victim of some other person or people, or the victim of some circumstances, some kind of misfortune). Elements of the situation: 1) one who can influence the fate of another person in the sense of his oppression or some kind of misfortune. 2) weak, being a victim of another person or misfortune. Examples: 1) ruined or exploited by someone who was supposed to care and protect, 2) previously loved or close, convinced that he was forgotten, 3) unfortunate, who have lost all hope, etc.
8. REBELLION, REBELLION, REBELLION. Elements of the situation: 1) tyrant, 2) conspirator. Examples: 1) a conspiracy of one (“The Fiesco Conspiracy” by Schiller), 2) a conspiracy of several, 3) an indignation of one (“Egmond” by Goethe), 4) an indignation of many (“William Tell” by Schiller, “Germinal” by Zola)
9. A BOLD ATTEMPT. Elements of the situation: 1) the daring one, 2) the object, that is, what the daring one decides on, 3) the opponent, the opposing person. Examples: 1) the abduction of an object ("Prometheus - the thief of fire" by Aeschylus). 2) enterprises associated with dangers and adventures (Jules Verne's novels, and adventure stories in general), 3) a dangerous enterprise in connection with the desire to achieve a beloved woman, etc.
10. KIDNAPPING. Elements of the situation: 1) the kidnapper, 2) the kidnapped person, 3) protecting the kidnapped person and being an obstacle to the kidnapping or counteracting the kidnapping. Examples: 1) abduction of a woman without her consent, 2) abduction of a woman with her consent, 3) abduction of a friend, comrade from captivity, prison, etc. 4) abduction of a child.
11. MYSTERY (i.e., on the one hand, asking a riddle, and on the other, asking, striving to solve the riddle). Elements of the situation: 1) asking a riddle, hiding something, 2) trying to solve the riddle, find out something, 3) the subject of a riddle or ignorance (mysterious) Examples: 1) under pain of death, you need to find some person or object, 2 ) to find the lost, lost, 3) under pain of death to solve the riddle (Oedipus and the Sphinx), 4) to force a person to reveal by all sorts of tricks what he wants to hide (name, gender, state of mind etc.)
12. ACHIEVING SOMETHING. Elements of the situation: 1) striving to achieve something, pursuing something, 2) the one on which the achievement of something depends on consent or help, refusing or helping, mediating, 3) there may be a third party that opposes the achievement. Examples: 1) try to get from the owner a thing or some other blessing in life, consent to marriage, position, money, etc. by cunning or force, 2) try to get something or achieve something with the help of eloquence (directly addressed to the owner of the thing or - to the judge, arbitrators, on whom the award of the thing depends)
13. HATE TO RELATED. Elements of the situation: 1) hater, 2) hated, 3) cause of hatred. Examples: 1) hatred between relatives (for example, brothers) out of envy, 2) hatred between relatives (for example, a son who hates his father) for reasons of material gain, 3) hatred of a mother-in-law for a future daughter-in-law, 4) mother-in-law for a son-in-law, 5) stepmothers to the stepdaughter, etc.
14. COMPETITION OF RELATED. Elements of the situation: 1) one of the relatives is preferred, 2) the other is neglected or abandoned, 3) the subject of rivalry (at the same time, apparently, ups and downs are possible at first, the preferred one turns out to be neglected and vice versa) Examples: 1) rivalry between brothers (“Pierre and Jean "Maupassant), 2) rivalry of sisters, 3) father and son - because of a woman, 4) mother and daughter, 5) rivalry of friends ("Two Veronets" by Shakespeare)
15. ADULTER (i.e., adultery, adultery), LEADING TO MURDER. Elements of the situation: 1) one of the spouses who violates marital fidelity, 2) the other of the spouses is deceived, 3) adultery (that is, someone else is a lover or mistress). Examples: 1) kill or let your lover kill her husband ("Lady Macbeth Mtsensk district" Leskov, "Teresa Raquin" Zola, "The Power of Darkness" Tolstoy) 2) kill a lover who entrusted his secret ("Samson and Delilah"), etc.
16. MADNESS. Elements of the situation: 1) a person who has fallen into madness (insane), 2) a victim of a person who has fallen into madness, 3) a real or imaginary reason for madness. Examples: 1) in a fit of madness, kill your lover (Elise the Prostitute by Goncourt), a child, 2) in a fit of madness, burn, destroy your own or someone else's work, a work of art, 3) in a drunken state, betray a secret or commit a crime.
17. FATAL NEGLIGENCE. Elements of the situation: 1) careless, 2) a victim of carelessness or a lost object, this is sometimes joined by 3) a good adviser warning against carelessness, or 4) an instigator, or both. Examples: 1) due to negligence, be the cause of one’s own misfortune, dishonor oneself (“Money” by Zola), 2) due to negligence or gullibility, cause misfortune or death of another person close ( Biblical Eve)
18. INWITNESS (out of ignorance) CRIME OF LOVE (in particular, incest). Elements of the situation: 1) lover (husband), mistress (wife), 3) recognition (in case of incest) that they are in a close degree of kinship, which does not allow love relationship according to the law and current morality. Examples: 1) find out that he married his mother (“Oedipus” by Aeschylus, Sophocles, Corneille, Voltaire), 2) find out that his mistress is a sister (“Messinian bride” by Schiller), 3) a very banal case: find out that the mistress - Married.
19. UNWINNING (out of ignorance) KILLING OF A RELATED. Elements of the situation: 1) killer, 2) unrecognized victim, 3) exposure, recognition. Examples: 1) involuntarily contribute to the murder of his daughter, out of hatred for her lover ("The King is having fun" Hugo, a play based on which the opera "Rigoletto" was made, 2) not knowing his father, kill him ("The freeloader" by Turgenev with the fact that the murder replaced by an insult), etc.
20. SELF-SACRIFICE IN THE NAME OF THE IDEAL. Elements of the situation: 1) a hero sacrificing himself, 2) an ideal (word, duty, faith, conviction, etc.), 3) a sacrifice. Examples: 1) sacrifice your well-being for the sake of duty (“Resurrection” by Tolstoy), 2) sacrifice your life in the name of faith, conviction ...
21. SELF-SACRIFICE FOR THE RELATED. Elements of the situation: 1) the hero sacrificing himself, 2) the loved one for whom the hero sacrifices himself, 3) what the hero sacrifices. Examples: 1) sacrifice your ambition and success in life for the sake of loved one(“The Zemgano Brothers” by Goncourt), 2) to sacrifice one’s love for the sake of a child, for the life of a loved one, 3) to sacrifice one’s chastity for the life of a loved one or loved one (“Tosca” to Sordou), 4) to sacrifice one’s life for the life of a loved one, etc. d.
22. SACRIFICE EVERYTHING - FOR THE SAKE OF PASSION. Elements of the situation: 1) a lover, 2) an object of fatal passion, 3) something that is sacrificed. Examples: 1) a passion that destroys the vow of religious chastity (“Mistake of Abbé Mouret” by Zola), 2) a passion that destroys power, power (“Antony and Cleopatra” by Shakespeare), 3) a passion quenched at the cost of life (“Egyptian Nights” by Pushkin) . But not only a passion for a woman, or a woman for a man, but also a passion for running, card game, guilt, etc.
23. SACRIFICE A LOVED PERSON BECAUSE OF NECESSITY, INEVITABILITY. Elements of the situation: 1) a hero who sacrifices a loved one, 2) a loved one who is sacrificed. Examples: 1) the need to sacrifice a daughter for the sake of public interest (“Iphigenia” by Aeschylus and Sophocles, “Iphigenia in Tauris” by Euripides and Racine), 2) the need to sacrifice loved ones or their adherents for the sake of their faith, conviction (“93 year” Hugo), etc. d.
24. COMPETITION OF UNEQUAL (and also almost equal or equal). Elements of the situation: 1) one opponent (in case of unequal rivalry - inferior, weaker), 2) another opponent (higher, stronger), 3) the subject of rivalry. Examples: 1) the rivalry between the winner and her prisoner (Mary Stuart by Schiller), 2) the rivalry between the rich and the poor. 3) rivalry between a person who is loved and a person who does not have the right to love (“Esmeralda” by V. Hugo), etc.
25. ADULTER (adultery, adultery). Elements of the situation: the same as in adultery leading to murder. Not considering adultery capable of creating a situation - by itself, Polti considers it as a special case of theft aggravated by betrayal, while pointing out three possible cases: 1) the lover (tsa) is more pleasant than firm than the deceived spouse ), 2) the lover is less attractive than the deceived spouse, 3) the deceived spouse takes revenge. Examples: 1) Madame Bovary by Flaubert, Kreutzer Sonata by L. Tolstoy.
26. CRIME OF LOVE. Elements of the situation: 1) in love (th), 2) beloved (th). Examples: 1) a woman in love with her daughter's husband ("Phaedra" by Sophocles and Racine, "Hippolytus" by Euripides and Seneca), 2) the incestuous passion of Dr. Pascal (in novel of the same name Zola), etc.
27. LEARNING ABOUT THE DISHONOR OF A LOVED OR RELATED (sometimes associated with the fact that the one who found out is forced to pronounce a sentence, punish a loved one or a loved one). Elements of the situation: 1) recognizer, 2) guilty loved one or close, 3) guilt. Examples: 1) learn about the dishonor of his mother, daughter, wife, 2) discover that a brother or son is a murderer, a traitor to the motherland and be forced to punish him, 3) be forced by virtue of an oath to kill a tyrant - to kill his father, etc. .
28. OBSTACLE OF LOVE. Elements of the situation: 1) lover, 2) mistress, 3) obstacle. Examples: 1) a marriage frustrated by social or property inequality, 2) a marriage frustrated by enemies or accidental circumstances, 3) a marriage frustrated by enmity between parents on both sides, 4) a marriage frustrated by dissimilarities in the characters of lovers, etc.
29. LOVE FOR THE ENEMY. Elements of the situation: 1) the enemy who aroused love, 2) the one who loves the enemy, 3) the reason why the beloved is the enemy. Examples: 1) the beloved is an opponent of the party to which the lover belongs, 2) the beloved is the murderer of the father, husband or relative of the one who loves him (“Romeo and Juliet”,), etc.
30. AMBITION AND LOVE OF POWER. Elements of the situation: 1) an ambitious person, 2) what he wants, 3) an adversary or rival, i.e., a counteracting person. Examples: 1) ambition, greed leading to crimes (“Macbeth” and “Richard 3” by Shakespeare, “The Rougon Career” and “Earth” by Zola), 2) ambition leading to rebellion, 3) ambition that is opposed by a loved one, friend, relative, own supporters, etc.
31. FIGHTING THE GOD (fight against God). Elements of the situation: 1) man, 2) god, 3) reason or subject of struggle. Examples: 1) fighting with God, arguing with him, 2) fighting with those who are faithful to God (Julian the Apostate), etc.
32. UNCONSCIOUS JEYALY, ENVY. Elements of the situation: 1) jealous, envious, 2) the object of his jealousy and envy, 3) the alleged rival, applicant, 4) a reason for delusion or his culprit (traitor). Examples: 1) jealousy is caused by a traitor who is motivated by hatred (“Othello”) 2) a traitor acts out of profit or jealousy (“Cunning and Love” by Schiller), etc.
33. JUDICIAL MISTAKE. Elements of the situation: 1) the one who makes a mistake, 2) the victim of the mistake, 3) the object of the mistake, 4) the true criminal Examples: 1) the mistake of justice is provoked by the enemy ("The Womb of Paris" by Zola), 2) judgement mistake provoked by a loved one, the victim's brother ("Robbers" by Schiller), etc.
34. CONCUSES OF CONSCIENCE. Elements of the situation: 1) the guilty, 2) the victim of the guilty (or his mistake), 3) looking for the guilty, trying to expose him. Examples: 1) remorse of the killer (“Crime and Punishment”), 2) remorse due to a mistake of love (“Madeleine” by Zola), etc.
35. LOST AND FOUND. Elements of the situation: 1) lost 2) found, 2) found. Examples: 1) "Children of Captain Grant", etc.
36. LOSS OF LOVED ONES. Elements of the situation: 1) deceased loved one, 2) lost loved one, 3) responsible for the death of a loved one. Examples: 1) powerless to do something (save his loved ones) - a witness to their death, 2) being bound by a professional secret (medical or secret confession, etc.), he sees the misfortune of loved ones, 3) foresee the death of a loved one, 4) find out about the death of an ally, 5) in despair at the death of a loved one, lose all interest in life, sink, etc.
Disputes about how many and what plots exist in literature are still ongoing. Offered different variants, different numbers, but the researchers can not come to a consensus. In principle, each person can find his own versions of this list and, if desired, getting rid of everything superfluous, leaving only the “skeleton”, find confirmation of his version in all works of world literature.
In our research using factor analysis out of 36 stories, only 5 were singled out:
1. Adultery (adultery, treason) with revenge
2. Restoration of justice
3. Search, achievement.
4. Sacrifice in the family and for the sake of the family
5. Sacrifice for an idea.
At least 4 of them are very similar to the stories proposed by Borges.
From the point of view of psychology, the preference or choice of a particular plot in literature or in cinema seems to be a reflection of the minimum state of a person and, as a maximum, his psychological (values, goals, norms, interests, abilities) and psychophysiological (features of perception, information processing depending on the physiological type functioning, from the type of the leading nervous system, the way of responding) of the type of person, the continuation of which is his worldview, which includes "addiction" to certain storylines of life, and literature in particular. In addition, it is interesting to consider the plots that are repeated in all works, as a symbolic reflection of the genetic programs laid down and evaluated in the non-specific part of the nervous system.
Therefore, your preference for plots in connection with psychophysiological data seems interesting.
Analysis.
In this case, this questionnaire should be considered by you as a reflection of your interests in storylines. Your task is to consider the plots closest and most rejected by you in connection with your type of activation. In the data analysis, when describing your type, include a description of plots that are not of interest and interest to you, specifying the possible reasons for this and the connection between them, and also try to generalize the plot lines and connect them with your type of activation and other psychological data, that is, explain these relationships.
1. The AMP studies the structure and structure of musical works in their connection with the content of music. These include: the doctrine of the expressive means of music: the musical syntax; about the topic. A special section of the AMP is the doctrine of the main types of structure of works, i.e. about forms in the narrow sense. The AMP studies mainly European professional music of the 17th-19th (20th) centuries. Thus, it is assumed that non-European music, folklore, sacred, light and pop music, jazz, ancient music, ultra-modern music are not studied. European professional music is based on a piece of music - this is a special phenomenon of European musical culture. Its main properties: authorship, musical notation, originality, individuality, artistic value, special laws of internal organization and perception (the presence of a composer, performer, listener). Music as an art form has its own specifics. 1 of the ways to classify the arts is as follows: 1) By the method of disclosing the content: fine, expressive, verbal (verbal); 2) by way of existence: temporary, spatial; 3) in the direction of the senses: visual, auditory, visual-auditory. Of all the arts, only music is expressive, temporal, auditory at the same time. Every art form has form and content. The content in any art is primarily a person and the world around him. Form is how content elements are organized. In a broad sense, form in music is the content of all means of expression any work. Form in the narrow sense is a type of structure of a work (three-part form, rondo, variations). It has long been noticed that music has a huge impact on a person (the myth of Orpheus). Music was often attributed to divine saints. The secret of the impact of music is largely related to its auditory nature. Vision, hearing(96%), smell, touch, taste (4%). Vision and hearing provide more than 96% of information about the world. But the world is perceived differently by hearing than by sight. Even the emotional reactions of people to visual and auditory impressions are in many ways opposite. Visual impressions are richer than auditory ones, but auditory impressions are more active, more easily overtake a person and are always associated with action, movement. The sound is able to bypass the word immediately convey strong emotions, as if to infect with this emotion. The power of music to convey emotions, words are a signal-suggestive effect. Suggestion-suggestion. This effect is common to humans and animals. It operates on a biological subconscious level. In addition to it, music affects through the cultural social. human experience. The sound of organ, harpsichord, brass, etc. immediately evoke corresponding associations. Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 4, part 2 - even rhythm embodies a state of rest, there are no jumps, the theme of "Sinbad's ship", 2 part of "Scheherazade". Image and expression 2 main ways of revealing content in art. An image is a reproduction of external visible objects or phenomena. In the image there is always a convention, a kind of deception. To portray means to present something that is not really there. Expression is the disclosure of the inner with the help of the outer. It is less specific than the image, but the element of convention is less. The word-expression itself is a directed movement from within outwards. Harmony and thematism form the basis of the system of musical forms.
2. Expressive means of music - the mechanism of influence of music is associated with the specifics of the elements of music: 1) Sound pitch: melody - a monophonic sequence of sounds of different heights; harmony - the combination of sounds into chords and the connection of chords with each other; register - part of the range, i.e. complete set of sounds, voice or instrument. High light register - the beginning of the orchestral introduction to Wagner's opera "Lohengrin", a very low register - Ravel's introduction to the second piano concerto, Grieg "Peer Gynt" "In the cave of the mountain king". 2) Temporary: meter - uniform alternation of strong and weak beats, rhythm - the ratio of sounds in duration, tempo - speed, speed of sounding music, agogics - leading, small deviations from the tempo for expressive purposes. 3) Associated with the nature of the sound: timbre - the color of the sound, dynamics - loudness, sound strength, articulation - the way sound is produced. A separate expressive means does not have one constant meaning, but has a whole range of expressive possibilities (in this sense, an expressive means is like a word of a language). Example: ascending part 4 - fanfare, expressive character. There must be ambiguity, i.e. emphasis on the 2nd beat (anthem of the Russian Federation, Chopin etude in E major, op. 10 No. 3, Schumann's play "Dreams" from the cycle "Children's Scenes"). Any expressive effect is achieved with the help of not one, but a number of expressive means (Beethoven's finale of the 5th symphony, main theme; the dynamics of fortissimo, the major mode, the timbre of brass wind instruments, the chord warehouse-mass character, the movement of the melody along the triad, marching are important here). This and the transition from part 3 to the final with a huge crescendo - jubilation, victory. In this case, the means reinforce each other, act in the same direction. The multidirectional action of expressive means is much less common, when they seem to contradict each other. Schumann "I'm Not Angry" from the "Love of a Poet" cycle. Major mode, unhurried tempo is combined here with harshness and dissonance of harmony, i.e. a feeling of bitterness and resentment seems to be hidden in the soul. Mussorgsky vocal cycle "Without the Sun" from 7, 4 in major (but gloomy, dark). The contradiction of expressive means often arises in music. Example: Schubert "Trout" - a great contradiction between the meaning of the text and the nature of the music in the last two lines of the poem "He took it off with a smile, I gave vent to tears." Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6, 1 hr. A secondary theme in the reprise is that the bright image seems to be distorted and poisoned due to chromatic overtones in the bass. Handel oratorio "Samson" funeral march Samson. Musical style is a system of musical thinking, manifested in the choice of a certain range of expressive means. Style is the common in the different. Can be understood more broadly: national style in art, music; style of a certain historical period - style Viennese classics; the style of one composer. And more narrowly - the style of the composer's late or early work; style of one piece. Scriabin "The Poem of Fire" "Prometheus Accord". Musical genres - types, types of musical works that have historically developed in connection with various social functions of music, certain types of its content, life preferences, conditions of performance and perception. Genre (from lat. rod.) is a special morphological category in music. There are genres that are more precise and specific in content (waltz, march), on the other hand, a march can be defined even more precisely: wedding, mourning, military, children's; hip: Viennese, Boston, etc. Suite, symphony, quartet, concerto genres are not very common, broad in meaning. For a deeper understanding of the content of music, it is important to be able to correctly define the genre. Example: Beethoven " Moonlight Sonata» Part 1 - in the melody, which does not enter immediately, there are obvious features of a funeral march. Chopin Prelude in C minor (funeral march). All genres develop from applied (utilitarian) to artistic (aesthetic).
3. In any kind of art there is a form and content. The content in any art is primarily a person and the world around him. Form is how content elements are organized. In a broad sense, the form in music is the content of all expressive means of any work. Form in the narrow sense is a type of structure of a work (three-part form, rondo, variations). In the very general plan the movement of music is carried out in 2 main ways: - repetition (similarity); - contrasts (dissimilarity). Similarity and contrast are abstract concepts that can really exist only within certain limits: in practice, complete similarity is impossible, as well as complete contrast. Mozart Symphony "Jupiter" (contrast). Similarity and contrast in music are some extreme points, between which there are countless combinations and intermediate options. Repetition happens: exact, Beethoven Sonata No. 18; modified or varied, Beethoven Symphony No. 5 (beginning). Contrast can be: fundamental fundamental, Mozart Symphony No. 41 "Jupiter" (beginning); complementary, Haydn or Mozart (mature) symphony or sonata 1 movement; derivative, Beethoven Sonata No. 1, 1st movement, main theme, secondary theme. Derived contrast is a special dialectical correlation of 2 topics, in which the 2nd topic is both contrasting with the first and related to it. Beethoven Sonata No. 1, 1st movement, main part, side part. The themes are contrasting in several ways (stroke, tonality, direction), but they have a common rhythm and melody. Classification of musical forms: 1) Simple forms: period (simple one-part), simple two-part, simple three-part. 2) Complex forms: complex two-part, arched (concentric) ABCBA. 3) Variations: sustained bass, sustained melody, simple variations, double, strict, free. 4) Rondo. 5) Sonata form. 6) Rondo sonata. 7) Cyclic forms: sonata-symphonic cycle, suite, special types of cycles. 8) Free and mixed forms. 9) Polyphonic forms (fugue, invention - fiction). 10) Vocal forms. 11) Large musical stage forms: opera, ballet, cantata and oratorio.
4. A theme is a musical thought that is distinguished by a rather structurally well-formed individuality and characteristic, and which underlies development. Thema (Greek) - underlying or subject. A term from rhetoric, where it meant the subject of discussion. Subjectum (lat.) - subject. Sujet (French) - theme. Usually the theme is stated at the beginning of the work, and then repeated exactly or with changes. Usually there are several themes in a work. Sometimes (in thumbnails) there is only one theme. Chopin Prelude in A major. Bach HTK prelude in C major. There is also non-thematic material in the work, which sets off the themes and links them together. It is also called general forms of movement. The theme is a historical concept, i.e. it is not yet in the music of the Middle Ages, and on the other hand, it may disappear in the music of the 20th century. The theme can be different in scale (the leitmotif of the fate of Wagner "Colsoni Belunga", Tchaikovsky's "Francesca da Rimini" - written on the basis of Dante's "Divine Poem". Themes in polyphony and homophony are significantly different: in polyphony, the theme is monophonic and imitated in different voices; in homophony - melody + accompaniment. In addition, the theme can be a figuration (from the Latin figuratio - shaping, figurative image) in music, complication musical fabric melodic or rhythmic elements. Chopin Fantasia-Impromptu in C sharp minor. Chopin Etude in F minor op. 25 #2. According to the figurative content, the themes are homogeneous (Mozart Symphony No. 40, 1 part main part) and contrasting (Mozart Symphony No. 41 in C major “Jupiter”, 1 part main part). Thematism is a set of themes that are united on some basis. For example: heroic, lyrical, romance, pop, etc. levels of musical organization. There are three levels of organization in a piece of music: textural, syntactic, and compositional. They differ in the psychology of perception and in their properties. The texture level is like a vertical cut in a short interval of sound (texture is the structure of the musical fabric). Rumors mainly operate here: the number of votes is analyzed; articulation; dynamics; harmony (1-2 chords). Syntactic level - syntax in music is small relatively final parts (mostly sentences and periods). At the syntactic level, these medium-sized constructions are heard. Here there is a feeling of movement of music, there is an inertia of perception. The support here is speech experience, as well as associations with various types of movement. Compositional level - the level of the work as a whole, or its large completed parts. This includes the mechanisms of operational and long-term memory, logical thinking skills. The associative base is the plot, dramaturgy, the unfolding of events.
5. The syntactic level in music implies the inertia of the perception of the sensation of movement in music. A huge role here is played by the meter - the alternation of supporting and non-supporting shares. The division into support and non-support have great importance throughout a person's life. In music, support and non-support exist not only at the level of beats, but also at the level of 2,4,8 bars, as well as within each beat. In European music, square constructions play a huge role, i.e. 4,8, 16 bars. In square constructions, the iambic principle is very important:
a combination of one, two unstressed - stop. Arsis (position, lifting of the foot) -> Thesis (lowering of the foot)
The first measure of 8 is heard as light, the second as heavy, and then the inertia of perception. Thus, odd bars will be light, and even bars will be heavy, but the severity of odd bars is different:
The functions of even measures are as follows: the second measure is a simple stop, caesura; 4 measure - half-cadence; 6 measure - waiting for the continuation; 8 measure - cadence. One of the first to use this punctuation system was the outstanding German theorist Hugo Riemann. Squareness can be violated in different ways: - Tchaikovsky's extension "January at the Fireside": 1234 5677a7b8
Beethoven Sonata No. 7: 1233a4 5678
Compression - skipping the initial or one of the middle bars, or combining 2 bars into one: Mozart Overture to the "Marriage of Figaro" ch. subject: 234 5678
Truncation - omission of the last measure: Verdi's "Duke's Song" from "Rigaletto" 1234 567
Scale-syntactic structures. At the syntactic level, several stable types are distinguished - scale-syntactic structures: 1) - Periodicity - a sequence of the same number of measures in structure:
Children's song "There is a horned goat" from 100 songs of R.-K.; - paraperiodicity: aa1 vv1: “There was a birch in the field”, R.-K. “Ay, there is a little linden in the field” from “The Snow Maiden”, “Sadko”, “Lullaby of the Volkhava”: aa1vv1ss1dd1d2d3 ... quarter periodicity. 2) Summation - a sequence of several smaller constructions and one larger one: 1 + 1 + 2: “Hey, let's go”, Glinka “Waltz-Fantasy” main theme: 3 + 3 + 6. 3) Crushing - a sequence of one larger construction and several smaller ones: 2 + 1 + 1: Dunaevsky "Merry Wind", Tchaikovsky "Children's Album" "Waltz". 4) Crushing with closure: 2+2+1+1+2: Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6 1st movement secondary theme, Beethoven Symphony No. 9 The theme of joy from the finale: 4+4+1+1+2+4.
6. A period is the smallest of the musical forms, containing one, relatively complete musical thought (from the ancient Greek circle, bypass). The period contains one topic. IN Russian theory In music, a period is understood only as a stable exposition of a theme. The period cannot be in development, although a superficial resemblance is possible. In the form of a period, an independent work of small scale is often written. For example: many preludes by Chopin, Lyadov, Scriabin. A period is often part of a larger whole. The period is characterized from 3 points of view: thematic content; harmonic content; structures. Based on these principles, they distinguish: 1) a period of a single structure and a period of several (usually 2) sentences; 2) the period of repeated and non-repeated structure (the beginning of sentences are similar or not); 3) the period is square and non-square; 4) the period is single-tone and modulating. Examples: 1) Beethoven Sonata No. 6 2nd movement main theme, Tchaikovsky Fantasy Overture "Romeo and Juliet" (love theme), Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6 first movement side part. 2) Chopin Prelude in A major, Waltz in C sharp minor (repeated structure); Shostakovich Gavotte from the cycle "Dances of the Dolls", Wagner Overture to the opera "Tannhäuser" (Pilgrim Chorale). 3) Tchaikovsky "The Seasons" "April", "January" (4 + 6). The period may not be closed, i.e. not have a final cadence and move into an unstable developmental presentation. Tchaikovsky "The Seasons" "February" ("Shrovetide"). Sometimes a period can be internally complicated: each of its two sentences is internally divided into 2 more sentences. If the cadences that complete both large sentences are similar, then the period is called repeated, if not similar, then complex or double. Tchaikovsky Sentimental Waltz, Chopin Etude in A minor op.10 No. 2, Chopin Fantasy in F minor. In the music of the Baroque era, a period of the unfolding type is often found. It has 3 semantic parts: core, deployment, cadence. Bach Italian concerto main theme; French and English suites are the opening themes of the alemande and the chimes (however, the usual period is found in the sarabandes, gavottes, minuets).
7. Simple shapes. A simple 2-part form, the first part of which is a period, and the second does not exceed the period. In terms of complexity, this form is next after the period (AB). 1 hour - can be a period of any type and size. 2h - more diverse and can be correlated differently with the 1st. Types of ratio of parts: 1) Chorus - chorus (singer - 1 hour, chorus - chorus). A couplet song, where the lyrics change in the chorus, but remain in the chorus. 2) Pair of periodicities (аа1вв1). "Ay, there is a linden in the field." 3) Theme - acting out (typical for instrumental music). Tchaikovsky's "Children's Album" The Organ Grinder Sings. Chopin waltz in A major op.34 No. 1, waltz in C sharp minor op. 64 No. 2. Lyadov Musical snuffbox trio. 4) The ratio typical for instrumental music: 1st period - exposition, 2nd period - development and completion. Beethoven Sonata No. 23 "Appassionata" 2h. variation theme. This simple two-part form can be reprise and non-reprise. Reprisal - where at the end of 2 hours. a fragment of the initial period is reproduced. Tchaikovsky Variations for Piano in F Major Theme. Grieg ballad in the form of variations of the theme. Mozart Symphony No. 40 final. Non-reprise: Beethoven sonata No. 23 theme, sonata No. 25 finale.
8. A simple three-part form is a form of three parts, 1st of which is a period, and the rest are no more than a period. A (exposure, initial period), B (middle), C (reprise). Parts of the form can be repeated in the following way:
There are two types of middle: developing (based on the material of the initial period); contrast (on new material) is very rare. Beethoven Sonata No. 20 2nd movement main theme. The middle scale can be equal to initial period, and can also be greater or less than it. The musical material in the middle is presented unstable, i.e. there is usually no single key here, sequences are used, small, fractional constructions, squareness is violated, if it was. A rare example of a 3-part form with a contrasting middle Grieg nocturne op.54 No. 4 (lyrical pieces, notebook No. 5).
Rachmaninoff Prelude in C sharp minor op.3 No. 1 (dynamized reprise). A reprise in a simple 3-part form can be exact (da capo from Italian from the head) and inaccurate (varied, abbreviated or extended, tonal change, dynamized). Rachmaninoff Prelude in G minor op.23 (complex 3-part form A (ava) B A). Mussorgsky's "Pictures at an Exhibition" "Two Jews, rich and poor" (by the author of "Goldenberg and Shmul (e)") is a unique case of reprise that connects two themes - the initial theme and the theme of the contrasting middle (synthetic reprise is very rare). Both themes retain their character and tone.
9. Complex shapes. Complex (composite) are called forms that are composed of simple ones. These forms are larger, more structurally developed, as a rule, multi-tonal. This includes: complex 2-part and complex 3-part forms. A complex 3-part form is a reprise form, each part of which exceeds a period:
Two main varieties: with a trio; with an episode. A complex three-part with a trio is a form where the middle part is written in a stable simple 2- or 3-part form. An episode is a piece of new material that does not contain a simple oral form. Reminds me of development sonata form. A complex three-part with a trio is found in dance music, as well as in minuets and scherzos, sonata-symphony cycles. The name "trio" indicates that the middle part was once actually performed by 3 musicians: tutti - trio - tutti. The tonalities of the middle part are usually different. This is the mode of the same name, parallel, subdominant. middle part usually wears a strong contrast. The tempo may change (usually slower). But when moving to a general reprise, the contrast is usually smoothed out:
The reprise can be exact (da capo) or modified. Less often, with a change of pace. Perhaps the introduction and code. The code may repeat the material of the middle part - a trio or an episode.
10. Special varieties of a complex three-part form: 1) Double three-part form: ABA1B1A (2). The 2nd part of the trio is repeated with transposition. Chopin Mazurka in B major op.56 №1 H Es H G H – equidistant. Chopin Nocturne in G major op.37 No. 2, Chopin Sonata No. 3 in B minor 4th movement. 2) 3-5-part form is a complex 3-part form with exact repetition of both parts:
Glinka "March of Chernomor" - there are no links between the parts. Beethoven Symphony No. 7 Scherzo 3rd movement; symphony no. 4 minuet 3 part. 3) Difficult 3-part with 2 trios. AWASA. Outwardly, the scheme of this form coincides with the scheme of the rondo. The difference is the absence of transitions and connections in a complex 3-part and their presence in a rondo. Mozart Haffner Symphony, Haffner Serenade. This form is associated with the tradition of light entertainment music. I.S. Bach Brandenburg Concerto No. 1: Minuet - Trio1 - Minuet - Polonaise - Trio2 - Minuet. Mendelssohn A Midsummer Night's Dream Wedding March Theme - trio1 - Theme (abbreviated) - trio2 - theme - coda. 4) complex 3-part with 2 trios in a row. ABSA. Beethoven Symphony No. 6 "Pastoral" 3rd movement. The village orchestra "A Merry Gathering of Villagers" is depicted. Chopin Polonaise in G sharp minor op.44. Sometimes there is a complication of a complex 3-part form, in which its parts are not written in simple forms, but in more developed ones. Beethoven Symphony No. 9 Scherzo 2h. A (sonata form) B (trio) A (sonata form). Borodin Symphony No. 2 "Bogatyrskaya" scherzo movement 2. A (sonata form without development) B (trio) A (sonata form without development). Quite often there are cases of a form intermediate between a simple and complex 3-part form:
11. A complex two-part form is a non-reprise form in which at least one of the parts is written in a stable form that exceeds the period. AB. The specificity of the form is in its openness, some incompleteness -> the form requires special conditions of existence, under which no reprise is needed. This is possible in vocal music, in opera, where there is a text and a plot. opera aria often has the 1st introductory section, and the 2nd - the main one, according to the recitative + aria scheme. But it happens that both sections are approximately equal in value, the image develops, and a return to the original state is not required. Glinka Cavatina and Antonida's Rondo "Ivan Susanin". Concentric - multi-dark form, refers to complex forms. ABCBA or ABCDBA. Aria "The Swan-Birds" "The Tale of Tsar Saltan" R.-K. ABCDWA. In the center, the swan-bird reveals the secret of its origin (D). "Sadko" 2 picture the theme of swans and ducks, the vocalization of the sea princess Volkhova, a lyrical duet and then the events repeat. Schubert "Shelter" from "Swan Song". Hindemith "Hin und zuruck" ("There and back") 17-part concentric form, where the plot is comedic conditioned.
12. Variation form. Its varieties. Variations are form, comp. From the presentation of the topic and a number of its modified repetitions. AA1A2A3A4…. Another name for the variational form is the variational cycle. Variato - weak. Change. Variation is one of the most important principles of development in music, understood extremely broadly. The specificity of variations is in the simultaneous action of two opposite principles of conservation and change. That is the similarity of variations with couplet form in vocal music variations m.b. a separate work or part of a section. There are several types variational form: by the main voice (for sustained melody, for sustained bass); by means of variation (strict, free, polyphonic); by number of topics (simple, double). The theme of variations can be. own or borrowed. The number of variations is practically unlimited, i.e. this form is open, but usually there are no more than 32 variations. Example: Beethoven 32 variations; Handel Passacaglia g-moll: the most stable is harmony, var 1: the principle of duration reduction; var 2: voice transmission from pr.r. to the lion R.; 3 var. Handel has a very important heroism: dotted rhythm, dynamics, dense texture. Var 7: again the initial character; var 11 - Albertian basses, harmonies break: mind appears53. There are 15 variations in total.
13. Variations on basso ostinato. Variations on the basso ostinato is such a form, which is based on the constant carrying out of the theme in the bass and the constant renewal of the upper voices. In the 17th - early 18th centuries, this was the most common type of variation. In the classical era, found in Beethoven. Symphony No. 9, coda 1st movement. Partly variations on the basso ostinato are Beethoven's famous 32 variations in C minor. Romantics have Brahms. Finale of Symphony No. 4. Interest in basso ostinato variations resurfaces in the 20th century. All major composers use them. Shostakovich has an example of such variations even in the opera (intermission between the 4th and 5th scenes of the opera "Katerina Izmailova"). The two main instrumental genres of such variations in the Baroque era are the passacaglia and the chaconne. IN vocal music used in choirs (J.S. Bach. Crucifixus from the Mass in B minor) or in arias (Purcell. Dido's Aria from the opera "Dido and Aeneas"). The theme is a small (2-8 measures, usually 4) monophonic sequence melodic to varying degrees. Usually her character is very generalized. Many themes represent a downward movement from degree I to degree V, often chromatic. There are themes that are less generalized and more melodically designed (Bach. Passacaglia to minor for organ). In the process of variation, the theme can move into upper voices (Bach. Passacaglia to minor for organ), figuratively change and even transpose into a different key (Buxtehude. Passacaglia in D minor for organ). Due to the brevity of the theme, there is often a combination of variations in pairs (according to the principle of a similar texture of the upper voices). The boundaries of variations do not always clearly coincide in all voices. With Bach, several variations in one texture often form a single powerful development, their boundaries disappear. If this principle is carried out throughout the whole work, the whole can hardly be called variations, since it is impossible to recognize as variations in the conduct of the bass in the lower voice without taking into account the upper ones. There is a kind of counterpoint form. Cycle completion can go beyond variation. Thus, the organ passacaglia of Bach ends with a great fugue.
14. Strict ornamental variations. This type of variation is very common among the Viennese classics. Another name for variations is figurative variations. The number of variations is not large, often no more than 5-6. Topic maybe. own or borrowed. Usually a little individual. So that it can be interesting to develop. The essence of this type of variation is that the melody theme is surrounded by figuration (detention, passing sounds, etc.). The most important principle of development is the reduction of durations - diminution. This principle usually wears out quickly, and in order to prolong it, the transfer of the topic from voice to voice is usually used. Another very important means is a temporary change of mode. Due to this, a grouping of variations resembling a tripartite pattern is formed. Ornamental variations are usually strict variations: they preserve the form of the theme, number of measures, harmonic foundations, general tempo and meter. Example: Beethoven Sonata No. 23 Appassionat: the melody is not the main thing, the main thing is the chords and rhythm. It develops from the bottom up. 2 beginnings, one restraining, the other breaking out. B1 - alternately; B2 - melodiousness, spread out chords, no point. Rhythm. B3 - reduction of durations, the theme is preserved, syncopations B4 - the theme sounds, no repetitions, dialogue of registers, performs the function of a reprise, codes, themes, transition to the finale. The impetus for development lies in the theme. Which is realized in 2c and 3c and summed up in 4c. Sonata A-dur 1h. Mozart 6 variations: non-chord sounds, melismas. Reminds me of the sonata cycle model 1h - 1-4v, 2h - 5v, 3h. - 6th century; 1-2c - dimenutia, 3c - minor, 4 - transfer of hands, 5 - adagio, 6 - final.
Theme with variations
If you've ever watched the movie Groundhog Day with Bill Murray (or Beware the Doors Are Closing!, The Butterfly Effect, Back to the Future...), then you already know what a theme with variations is.
In these films, with each twist in the plot, the images of the characters or the circumstances in which these characters find themselves are modified, but at the same time something always remains unchanged.
Wherever the action takes place - in the present, past or future - a trailer with manure still overturns on Marty McFly's enemies; the heroine Gwyneth Paltrow in both scenarios meets her future boyfriend; weather reporter Phil Connors wakes up again and again in his Punxsutawney hotel room on Groundhog Day, February 2, and most he has already memorized the events that await him on this day, although thanks to his intervention they “sound” every time in a new way.
Approximately according to the same principle (not literally, of course:) musical variations are built, only in them the musical theme undergoes transformations. In each variant (=variation), it is colored with new colors, and ideally, it also turns with new facets, acquires new features (in this case, it is not possible to follow its metamorphoses).
Pieces written in the form of a theme with variations are just a godsend for i-virtuosos, who find it profitable to shine by presenting to the listener everything they are capable of at once (, various brilliant ...)
Although, of course, the task before the performer here is not only technical. After all, good variations also imply a variety of artistic, images, characters, moods: here you need to be a violinist, an artist and an artist at the same time, to be able to transform.
Variations of Paganini, Ernst, Khandoshkin
Paganini was very fond of variations. Already in his first solo concert, which he gave at the age of 11, he played, among other things, his own variations on the revolutionary song "Carmagnola". Later, Paganini composed many variations on romantic themes: among them "The Witch" on a theme from the ballet "The Wedding of Benevento" by Süssmayr, "Prayer" on one string on a theme from the opera "Moses" by Rossini, "At the hearth I no longer feel sad" on a theme from the opera "Cinderella" by Rossini, " Trembling of the Heart" on a theme from the opera "Tancred" by Rossini, "How the Heart Stops" on a theme from the opera "The Beautiful Miller's Woman" by Paisiello. The most “armor-piercing” Paganinian variations in terms of technique are on the theme of the English anthem “God Save the Queen!”
The famous 24th Paganini, by the way, also consists entirely of variations. The theme of the caprice - impudent, rebellious - undoubtedly should have been to the taste of the Carbonari at one time. It is followed by variations that reveal the potential of the theme with different sides. The first - sparkling volatile beads fall in cascades, the second - a gloomy minor lace with sharp ones is woven, the third - a lyrical sad melody performed by deep ones. And then seven more variations, including variations, and with the left hand, and the final of and broken lines, forming, as it were, several “terraces”. All this should not just be played, but so that the listener feels as if he is being led through the enfilades of the same building: there must be development, forward movement and a convincing conclusion.
Another famous virtuoso of past eras, Heinrich Ernst, also could not pass by the genre of theme with variations. He left us the "Last Rose of Summer", which now (together with "God Save the Queen!") scare beginner violinists, and the audience at the same time. This piece, which is extremely difficult to perform, is based on the theme of the Scottish song of the same name, with lyrics by Thomas More. Those who are not enthusiastic about the technical "bells and whistles" of "Rose" vindictively call her stupid in content and poor in music. But they are unfair to Rosa. After all, the main thing for variations in it is - lovely theme. There is also a plot that is quite capable of fueling the imagination. If you read carefully, and then work on the image, phrasing, while listening to the same song in other traditions (performed by Clannad eg... or opera diva Lily Pons, or Deanna Durbin...) - then the game with this piece will be completely different. But in order for it to give pleasure, it is necessary, of course, to emphasize the theme, to play it with a beautiful sound, despite all the and wrapped around it. That is, you still need it sing…
The "Russian Paganini" Khandoshkin was also a fan of virtuoso variations. As a theme, he took Russian folk songs, which acquired under his fingers a new, seemingly unusual brilliance and color. The song “There was a birch in the field” sounded temperamentally and almost rebelliously - we probably would not have guessed about its nature without Khandoshkin.
Philosophical variations
Not only the most virtuosic, but also the deepest in content violin works (Corelli's Folia, Bach's Chaconne) are written in the form of variations.
The philosophical potential of variations is great because, after all, life itself is multivariate. And although in reality we have to choose only one of the existing options (that is, we are deprived of the opportunity to see life in all its diversity), in music you can do otherwise. Watching how the same topic develops in different planes, we can come to a lot of interesting thoughts and even - who knows? - perhaps it is better to understand the structure of all living things.
) up to several tens (32 variations with Beethoven's moll).
Variation Classification Criteria:
1) by the number of topics - single, double, triple;
2) according to the degree of freedom of variation of the theme - strict (the structure of the theme, tonality, harmonic plan is preserved) and free (any transformation of the theme is possible);
3) according to the method of variation - polyphonic, figurative, textured, genre, timbre;
4) historical types of variational forms:
Variations on basso ostinato;
figurative variations;
Variations on soprano ostinato;
Free variations (characteristic);
Variant form.
Variations on basso ostinato(basso ostinato - stubborn bass) appeared in the XVI-XVII centuries. They are based on the constant repetition of the same melodic turn in the bass. The appearance of variations on the basso ostinato was preceded by a polyphonic form, which had an unchanged cantus firmus (Gregorian chant in which the tenor part did not change). In the XVI-XVII centuries. variations on the basso ostinato were widely used in dance music. Some vintage dances- passacaglia, chaconne, English ground and others were variations on basso ostinato.
Passacaglia(from Spanish - pass, street) - spanish dance- a procession performed at the departure of guests.
Chaconne(from Spanish - always the same) - a Spanish dance of folk origin, but more lively and active.
Typical for these genres are: majestic character, unhurried unfolding of form, slow tempo, 3 beats, minor scale(major mode is less common and more typical for operatic basso ostinato).
Main differences. Passacaglia is a more monumental, solemn genre (for organ or instrumental ensemble). main topic(4-8 vols.) begins with the 3rd beat, unanimously. Chaconne - more chamber genre, is performed by a solo instrument - clavier or violin, begins with the 2nd beat, is presented in the form of a harmonic sequence.
The shape of the variations on the basso ostinato survived even after the passacaglia and chaconne lost their dancing significance. The principle of basso ostinato also penetrated into the arias and choruses of operas, oratorios and cantatas of the 16th-17th centuries. Classic examples of chaconne and passacaglia in music XVIII V. are presented in works by Bach (for example, the Crucifixus chorus from the Mass in b minor) and Handel (passacaglia from the suite in g minor for clavier). Beethoven used variations on the basso ostinato as an element of the major form (the coda Vivace of the 7th symphony) and as the basis of the variation-cyclic form (the finale of the 3rd symphony).
The theme of variations on the basso ostinato can be:
Chord (Bach. Chaconne d-moll for violin solo);
In variations on basso ostinato, variation usually occurs in the upper voices, but changes can also concern the theme itself: various kinds of figurations, transposition, transfer to the upper voice.
There are two types of variation themes on basso ostinato:
1) a closed theme that begins and ends with the tonic; while the descending diatonic tetrachord remains the support (from the I degree to the V degree);
2) an open topic ends on a dominant, the moment of resolution of which coincides with the beginning new variation. In structure, the theme is often a period of 4-16 vols. ("Chaconne in d-moll" by Bach). The theme, as a rule, is stated at first in one voice, the variation is organized according to the principle of increasing the number of voices, changing the modal mood in the group of "middle" variations.
Polyphonic: imitation, canon, vertically movable counterpoint;
Diminution (proportional decrease in durations);
Re-harmonization of the theme.
There are 2 ways to organize the form of variations on the basso ostinato:
1) the form is divided into variations if the boundaries of the ostinato bass and upper voices coincide;
2) the form is stratified into 2 independent layers - ostinato bass and upper voices, in which the caesuras do not coincide. As a result, 2 independent forms are simultaneously formed - one in the lower voice, the other in the upper voices.
The form as a whole was characterized by education subvariations(variations per variation), combining variations into groups based on any one principle.
In the XIX-XX centuries. the importance of variations on basso ostinato increases (Brahms. Finale of Symphony No. 4). Going beyond variations on basso ostinato, ostinato gradually becomes one of the important principles of shaping in the music of the 19th-20th centuries. and manifests itself in the field of rhythm, harmony, melodic tunes (Ravel, Stravinsky, Shostakovich, Khachaturian, Kabalevsky, Britten, Orff).
basis strict (classical) variations is a theme, presented mostly in a 2-part reprise form, and a number of variations. Strict variations are called because the theme in them is basically preserved: the structure, harmonic movement, and melodic basis remain unchanged. Rhythm, texture, registration and dynamics remain on the share of variation. The theme of variations has an emphatically song (song and dance) character, is diatonic, has a small range, a clear cadence (these features of the theme have folk origin). Preference in the structure is given to a simple 2-part form (often reprise), the latter variation is often written in a simple 3-part form or a simple 2-part with a coda.
All variations are presented in the main key. Approximately in the middle of the cycle, a variation (or group of variations) appears in same key. This is a means of creating contrast in the development of one theme music and gives the variations the features of a 3-part composition. In variations, another form of the second plan may also arise, for example, a rondo. Sometimes in strict variations one can detect features of sonata form. The "sonata" of variations is expressed not in tonal terms, but in the alternation of variations (groups of variations) with different principles of variation.
Classical variations are widely used in the works of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. Some cycles are small, consisting of 5-6 variations (I part of the 12th sonata of Beethoven, I part of the 11th sonata of Mozart). Sometimes there are works with a large number of variations, for example: Beethoven's 32 variations with - moll.
So, strict (classical, ornamental, figurative) variations appeared in the Western European instrumental music XVII-XVIII centuries
Their hallmarks are:
♦ theme – original or borrowed; homophonic-harmonic warehouse, with a clear diatonic melody and accompaniment; calm pace, simple rhythm; middle register; simple 2-part form (Beethoven. Sonata No. 23, II movement; No. 12, I movement) or 3-part (Mozart. 12 variations. KV 265), form, period or (rarely) long sentence (Beethoven. 32 variations) ;
♦ all types of figurations are used in figurative variations: melodic, harmonic, mixed; diminutia (XVI century) - rhythmic fragmentation, reduction of durations in a melody and other voices;
♦ association of variations into groups based on any principle of variation – rhythmic, tonal, textural, on the basis of diminution; by tone;
♦ completion of the variation cycle: carrying out the theme in its original form or the final variation at a fast pace with the smallest durations (performs the function of a coda or includes a coda).
Strict variations include the type variations on soprano ostinato, which arose in the work of Glinka (hence another name - Glinka variations). In this type of variation, the theme (melody) remains unchanged. Variation is carried out mainly by means of harmony (Persian choir from the opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila" by Glinka). The primary source of a new type of variational form was the couplet structure of the Russian folk song. In choral form, this form is called couplet-variation.
In the twentieth century the form of variations on soprano ostinato was carried over to instrumental music("Bolero" by Ravel, episode of the invasion from the I part of the 7th symphony by Shostakovich).
The theme of variations on soprano ostinato can be original or borrowed (“A Baby Came Out” - Martha's song from Mussorgsky's opera “Khovanshchina”). The form of the theme is a big sentence or a period (Rimsky-Korsakov. Sadko's song “Oh you, dark oak tree” from II k.), Simple 2-part non-reprise (Rimsky-Korsakov. 3rd song by Lel from III d. “A cloud with thunder colluded"), simple 2-part reprise (Glinka. Persian choir from the third act of the opera Ruslan and Lyudmila), rarely simple 3-part (Grig. "In the cave of the mountain king" from the suite "Peer Gynt").
The number of stories in world literature is limited. This fact is faced by almost every person who once decided to take up writing. And this number is not only limited, but also counted! There are several typologies that give a fairly convincing answer to the question: “How many plots are there in total?”
For the first time, the Byzantine writer (and part-time patriarch of Constantinople) Photius became interested in this problem, and back in the 9th century he compiled the Myriobiblion - a collection of brief descriptions of the works of ancient Greek and Byzantine authors, including church, secular, historical literature.
A thousand years later, interest in this problem flared up with new force, and now the list of subjects sought to be as short as possible!
Jorge Luis Borges stated that there are only four plots and, accordingly, four heroes, whom he described in his novel Four Cycles.
1. The oldest story is the story of a besieged city, which is stormed and defended by heroes. The defenders know that the city is doomed and resistance is futile. (This is a story about Troy, and the main character, Achilles, knows that he will die without seeing victory. A rebel hero, the very fact of whose existence is a challenge to the surrounding reality.
2. The second story is about the return. The story of Odysseus, who wandered the seas for ten years in an attempt to return home. The hero of these stories is a man rejected by society, endlessly wandering in an attempt to find himself - Don Quixote, Beowulf.
3. The third story is about the search. This story is somewhat similar to the second, but in this case the hero is not an outcast and does not oppose himself to society. The most famous example of such a hero is Jason, sailing for the Golden Fleece.
4. The fourth story is about the suicide of God. Atys maims and kills himself, Odin sacrifices himself to Odin, to himself, hanging on a tree for nine days, nailed with a spear, Roman legionnaires crucify Christ. The hero of the "death of the gods" - losing or gaining faith, in search of faith - Zarathustra, Bulgakov's Master, Bolkonsky.
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Christopher Booker, in his book The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories, described, as you might guess, the seven basic plots that he believes all the books in the world are based on. the world.
1. "From rags to riches" - the name speaks for itself, the most striking example, familiar to everyone since childhood - Cinderella. Heroes are ordinary people who discover something unusual in themselves, thanks to their own efforts or by coincidence, they find themselves “on top”.
2. "Adventure" - a difficult journey in search of an elusive goal. According to Booker, both Odysseus and Jason fall into this category, in addition, both "King Solomon's Mines" and "Around the World in Eighty Days" fall into this category.
3. "There and back." At the heart of the plot is the attempt of the hero, torn from the familiar world, to return home. In Booker's interpretation, this is Robinson Crusoe, and Alice Through the Looking-Glass, and many others.
4. "Comedy" - A certain type of plot that develops according to its own rules. All Jane Austen novels fall into this category.
5. "Tragedy" - the climax is the death of the protagonist due to any character flaws, usually love passion or a thirst for power. These are, first of all, "Macbeth", "King Lear" and "Faust".
6. "Resurrection" - the hero is under the power of a curse or dark forces, and a miracle brings him out of this state. A vivid example of this plot is the Sleeping Beauty, awakened by the kiss of the prince.
7. "Victory over the monster" - from the name it is clear what the plot is - the hero fights the monster, defeats him and receives a "prize" - treasures or love. Examples: Dracula, David and Goliath
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But the most sensational was the list of plots compiled by the playwright Georges Polti, which included thirty-six items (by the way, the first number thirty-six was proposed by Aristotle and much later supported by Victor Hugo). Thirty-six plots and themes of Polti cover mainly dramaturgy and tragedies. There were disputes around this list, it was repeatedly criticized, but almost no one tried to protest the number 36 itself.
1. PLEASE. Elements of the situation: 1) the persecutor, 2) the persecuted and begging for protection, help, shelter, forgiveness, etc., 3) the force on which it depends to provide protection, etc., while the force that does not immediately decide to defend , hesitant, unsure of herself, which is why she has to beg (thus increasing the emotional impact of the situation), the more she hesitates and does not dare to help. Examples: 1) a fleeing person begs someone who can save him from enemies, 2) begs for shelter in order to die in it, 3) a shipwrecked person asks for shelter, 4) asks for someone in power for dear, close people, 5) asks for one relative for another relative, etc.
2. SALVATION. Elements of the situation: 1) unhappy, 2) threatening, persecuting, 3) savior. This situation differs from the previous one in that there the persecuted resorted to the hesitant power, which had to be pleaded, but here the savior appears unexpectedly and saves the unfortunate without hesitation. Examples: 1) the denouement of the famous tale of the Bluebeard. 2) saving a person sentenced to death or generally in mortal danger, etc.
3. REVENGE PURSUING CRIME. Elements of the situation: 1) avenger, 2) guilty, 3) crime. Examples: 1) blood feud, 2) revenge on a rival or rival or lover, or mistress on the basis of jealousy.
4. REVENGE OF A CLOSE PERSON FOR ANOTHER CLOSE PERSON OR RELATED PEOPLE. Elements of the situation: 1) a living memory of the offense inflicted on another loved one, harm, of the victims he suffered for the sake of his loved ones, 2) a vengeful relative, 3) the person responsible for these insults, harm, etc. - a relative. Examples: 1) revenge on the father for the mother or mother for the father, 2) revenge on the brothers for their son, 3) father for the husband, 4) husband for the son, etc. A classic example: Hamlet's revenge on his stepfather and mother for his murdered father .
5. Haunted. Elements of the situation: 1) a crime committed or a fatal mistake and the expected punishment, retribution, 2) hiding from punishment, retribution for a crime or mistake. Examples: 1) persecuted by the authorities for politics (for example, Schiller's "Robbers", the history of the revolutionary struggle in the underground), 2) persecuted for robbery (detective stories), 3) persecuted for a mistake in love ("Don Juan" by Moliere, alimentary stories and etc.), 4) a hero pursued by a superior force (“Chained Prometheus” by Aeschylus, etc.).
6. SUDDEN DISASTER. Elements of the situation: 1) the victorious enemy, appearing personally; or a messenger bringing terrible news of defeat, collapse, etc., 2) a ruler defeated by a winner or slain by news, a powerful banker, an industrial king, etc. Examples: 1) the fall of Napoleon, 2) Zola's "Money", 3 ) "The End of Tartarin" by Anphonse Daudet, etc.
7. Victim (i.e., someone, the victim of some other person or people, or the victim of some circumstances, some kind of misfortune). Elements of the situation: 1) one who can influence the fate of another person in the sense of his oppression or some kind of misfortune. 2) weak, being a victim of another person or misfortune. Examples: 1) ruined or exploited by someone who was supposed to care and protect, 2) previously loved or close, convinced that he was forgotten, 3) unfortunate, who have lost all hope, etc.
8. REBELLION, REBELLION, REBELLION. Elements of the situation: 1) tyrant, 2) conspirator. Examples: 1) a conspiracy of one (“The Fiesco Conspiracy” by Schiller), 2) a conspiracy of several, 3) an indignation of one (“Egmond” by Goethe), 4) an indignation of many (“William Tell” by Schiller, “Germinal” by Zola)
9. A BOLD ATTEMPT. Elements of the situation: 1) the daring one, 2) the object, that is, what the daring one decides on, 3) the opponent, the opposing person. Examples: 1) the abduction of an object ("Prometheus - the thief of fire" by Aeschylus). 2) enterprises associated with dangers and adventures (Jules Verne's novels, and adventure stories in general), 3) a dangerous enterprise in connection with the desire to achieve a beloved woman, etc.
10. KIDNAPPING. Elements of the situation: 1) the kidnapper, 2) the kidnapped person, 3) protecting the kidnapped person and being an obstacle to the kidnapping or counteracting the kidnapping. Examples: 1) abduction of a woman without her consent, 2) abduction of a woman with her consent, 3) abduction of a friend, comrade from captivity, prison, etc. 4) abduction of a child.
11. MYSTERY (i.e., on the one hand, asking a riddle, and on the other, asking, striving to solve the riddle). Elements of the situation: 1) asking a riddle, hiding something, 2) trying to solve the riddle, find out something, 3) the subject of a riddle or ignorance (mysterious) Examples: 1) under pain of death, you need to find some person or object, 2 ) to find the lost, lost, 3) under pain of death to solve the riddle (Oedipus and the Sphinx), 4) to force a person to reveal what he wants to hide by all sorts of tricks (name, gender, state of mind, etc.)
12. ACHIEVING SOMETHING. Elements of the situation: 1) striving to achieve something, pursuing something, 2) the one on which the achievement of something depends on consent or help, refusing or helping, mediating, 3) there may be a third party that opposes the achievement. Examples: 1) try to get from the owner a thing or some other blessing in life, consent to marriage, position, money, etc. by cunning or force, 2) try to get something or achieve something with the help of eloquence (directly addressed to the owner of the thing or - to the judge, arbitrators, on whom the award of the thing depends)
13. HATE TO RELATED. Elements of the situation: 1) hater, 2) hated, 3) cause of hatred. Examples: 1) hatred between relatives (for example, brothers) out of envy, 2) hatred between relatives (for example, a son who hates his father) for reasons of material gain, 3) hatred of a mother-in-law for a future daughter-in-law, 4) mother-in-law for a son-in-law, 5) stepmothers to the stepdaughter, etc.
14. COMPETITION OF RELATED. Elements of the situation: 1) one of the relatives is preferred, 2) the other is neglected or abandoned, 3) the subject of rivalry (at the same time, apparently, ups and downs are possible at first, the preferred one turns out to be neglected and vice versa) Examples: 1) rivalry between brothers (“Pierre and Jean "Maupassant), 2) rivalry of sisters, 3) father and son - because of a woman, 4) mother and daughter, 5) rivalry of friends ("Two Veronets" by Shakespeare)
15. ADULTER (i.e., adultery, adultery), LEADING TO MURDER. Elements of the situation: 1) one of the spouses who violates marital fidelity, 2) the other of the spouses is deceived, 3) adultery (that is, someone else is a lover or mistress). Examples: 1) kill or let your lover kill her husband (“Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District” by Leskov, “Teresa Raken” by Zola, “The Power of Darkness” by Tolstoy) 2) kill a lover who entrusted his secret (“Samson and Delilah”), etc. .
16. MADNESS. Elements of the situation: 1) a person who has fallen into madness (insane), 2) a victim of a person who has fallen into madness, 3) a real or imaginary reason for madness. Examples: 1) in a fit of madness, kill your lover (Elise the Prostitute by Goncourt), a child, 2) in a fit of madness, burn, destroy your own or someone else's work, a work of art, 3) in a drunken state, betray a secret or commit a crime.
17. FATAL NEGLIGENCE. Elements of the situation: 1) careless, 2) a victim of carelessness or a lost object, this is sometimes joined by 3) a good adviser warning against carelessness, or 4) an instigator, or both. Examples: 1) due to negligence, be the cause of one’s own misfortune, dishonor oneself (“Money” by Zola), 2) due to negligence or gullibility, cause misfortune or death of another person close (Biblical Eve)
18. INWITNESS (out of ignorance) CRIME OF LOVE (in particular, incest). Elements of the situation: 1) lover (husband), mistress (wife), 3) recognition (in the case of incest) that they are in a close degree of kinship, which does not allow love relationships in accordance with the law and current morality. Examples: 1) find out that he married his mother (“Oedipus” by Aeschylus, Sophocles, Corneille, Voltaire), 2) find out that his mistress is a sister (“Messinian bride” by Schiller), 3) a very banal case: find out that the mistress - Married.
19. UNWINNING (out of ignorance) KILLING OF A RELATED. Elements of the situation: 1) killer, 2) unrecognized victim, 3) exposure, recognition. Examples: 1) involuntarily contribute to the murder of his daughter, out of hatred for her lover ("The King is having fun" Hugo, a play based on which the opera "Rigoletto" was made, 2) not knowing his father, kill him ("The freeloader" by Turgenev with the fact that the murder replaced by an insult), etc.
20. SELF-SACRIFICE IN THE NAME OF THE IDEAL. Elements of the situation: 1) a hero sacrificing himself, 2) an ideal (word, duty, faith, conviction, etc.), 3) a sacrifice. Examples: 1) sacrifice your well-being for the sake of duty (“Resurrection” by Tolstoy), 2) sacrifice your life in the name of faith, conviction ...
21. SELF-SACRIFICE FOR THE RELATED. Elements of the situation: 1) the hero sacrificing himself, 2) the loved one for whom the hero sacrifices himself, 3) what the hero sacrifices. Examples: 1) sacrifice your ambition and success in life for the sake of a loved one (“The Zemgano Brothers” by Goncourt), 2) sacrifice your love for the sake of a child, for the life of a loved one, 3) sacrifice your chastity for the life of a loved one or loved one (“Tosca” by Sordu ), 4) to sacrifice life for the life of a loved one, etc.
22. SACRIFICE EVERYTHING - FOR THE SAKE OF PASSION. Elements of the situation: 1) a lover, 2) an object of fatal passion, 3) something that is sacrificed. Examples: 1) a passion that destroys the vow of religious chastity (“Mistake of Abbé Mouret” by Zola), 2) a passion that destroys power, power (“Antony and Cleopatra” by Shakespeare), 3) a passion quenched at the cost of life (“Egyptian Nights” by Pushkin) . But not only a passion for a woman, or a woman for a man, but also a passion for running, playing cards, wine, etc.
23. SACRIFICE A LOVED PERSON BECAUSE OF NECESSITY, INEVITABILITY. Elements of the situation: 1) a hero who sacrifices a loved one, 2) a loved one who is sacrificed. Examples: 1) the need to sacrifice a daughter for the sake of public interest (“Iphigenia” by Aeschylus and Sophocles, “Iphigenia in Tauris” by Euripides and Racine), 2) the need to sacrifice loved ones or their adherents for the sake of their faith, conviction (“93 year” Hugo), etc. d.
24. COMPETITION OF UNEQUAL (and also almost equal or equal). Elements of the situation: 1) one opponent (in case of unequal rivalry - inferior, weaker), 2) another opponent (higher, stronger), 3) the subject of rivalry. Examples: 1) the rivalry between the winner and her prisoner (Mary Stuart by Schiller), 2) the rivalry between the rich and the poor. 3) rivalry between a person who is loved and a person who does not have the right to love (“Esmeralda” by V. Hugo), etc.
25. ADULTER (adultery, adultery). Elements of the situation: the same as in adultery leading to murder. Not considering adultery capable of creating a situation - by itself, Polti considers it as a special case of theft aggravated by betrayal, while pointing out three possible cases: 1) the lover (tsa) is more pleasant than firm than the deceived spouse ), 2) the lover is less attractive than the deceived spouse, 3) the deceived spouse takes revenge. Examples: 1) Madame Bovary by Flaubert, Kreutzer Sonata by L. Tolstoy.
26. CRIME OF LOVE. Elements of the situation: 1) in love (th), 2) beloved (th). Examples: 1) a woman in love with her daughter's husband ("Phaedra" by Sophocles and Racine, "Hippolytus" by Euripides and Seneca), 2) the incestuous passion of Dr. Pascal (in Zola's novel of the same name), etc.
27. LEARNING ABOUT THE DISHONOR OF A LOVED OR RELATED (sometimes associated with the fact that the one who found out is forced to pronounce a sentence, punish a loved one or a loved one). Elements of the situation: 1) recognizer, 2) guilty loved one or close, 3) guilt. Examples: 1) learn about the dishonor of his mother, daughter, wife, 2) discover that a brother or son is a murderer, a traitor to the motherland and be forced to punish him, 3) be forced by virtue of an oath to kill a tyrant - to kill his father, etc. .
28. OBSTACLE OF LOVE. Elements of the situation: 1) lover, 2) mistress, 3) obstacle. Examples: 1) a marriage frustrated by social or property inequality, 2) a marriage frustrated by enemies or accidental circumstances, 3) a marriage frustrated by enmity between parents on both sides, 4) a marriage frustrated by dissimilarities in the characters of lovers, etc.
29. LOVE FOR THE ENEMY. Elements of the situation: 1) the enemy who aroused love, 2) the one who loves the enemy, 3) the reason why the beloved is the enemy. Examples: 1) the beloved is an opponent of the party to which the lover belongs, 2) the beloved is the murderer of the father, husband or relative of the one who loves him (“Romeo and Juliet”,), etc.
30. AMBITION AND LOVE OF POWER. Elements of the situation: 1) an ambitious person, 2) what he wants, 3) an adversary or rival, i.e., a counteracting person. Examples: 1) ambition, greed leading to crimes (“Macbeth” and “Richard 3” by Shakespeare, “The Rougon Career” and “Earth” by Zola), 2) ambition leading to rebellion, 3) ambition that is opposed by a loved one, friend, relative, own supporters, etc.
31. FIGHTING THE GOD (fight against God). Elements of the situation: 1) man, 2) god, 3) reason or subject of struggle. Examples: 1) fighting with God, arguing with him, 2) fighting with those who are faithful to God (Julian the Apostate), etc.
32. UNCONSCIOUS JEYALY, ENVY. Elements of the situation: 1) jealous, envious, 2) the object of his jealousy and envy, 3) the alleged rival, applicant, 4) a reason for delusion or his culprit (traitor). Examples: 1) jealousy is caused by a traitor who is motivated by hatred (“Othello”) 2) a traitor acts out of profit or jealousy (“Cunning and Love” by Schiller), etc.
33. JUDICIAL MISTAKE. Elements of the situation: 1) the one who is mistaken, 2) the victim of the mistake, 3) the subject of the mistake, 4) the true criminal Examples: 1) a judicial error was provoked by an enemy (“The Womb of Paris” by Zola), 2) a judicial error was provoked by a loved one, the brother of the victim (“Robbers” by Schiller), etc.
34. CONCUSES OF CONSCIENCE. Elements of the situation: 1) the guilty, 2) the victim of the guilty (or his mistake), 3) looking for the guilty, trying to expose him. Examples: 1) remorse of the killer (“Crime and Punishment”), 2) remorse due to a mistake of love (“Madeleine” by Zola), etc.
35. LOST AND FOUND. Elements of the situation: 1) lost 2) found, 2) found. Examples: 1) "Children of Captain Grant", etc.
36. LOSS OF LOVED ONES. Elements of the situation: 1) deceased loved one, 2) lost loved one, 3) responsible for the death of a loved one. Examples: 1) powerless to do something (save his loved ones) - a witness to their death, 2) being bound by a professional secret (medical or secret confession, etc.), he sees the misfortune of loved ones, 3) foresee the death of a loved one, 4) find out about the death of an ally, 5) in despair at the death of a loved one, lose all interest in life, sink, etc.
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To be honest, it seems to me that Polti compiled his list too broadly, too broadly, and although I have studied this list more than once, I was interested in it, but I cannot say that it suits me completely and completely. I agree with the idea that the number of topics in world literature is limited, but from the typologies and lists that existed before, none seems completely adequate to me.
And therefore, I am ready to offer my typology, or rather my list, and in order not to repeat my older comrades, I will define the circle of the most frequently encountered plots, the most popular, to which, however, most works of literature, dramaturgy and cinematography are reduced. Moreover, I will describe basic themes, not in general terms, but to be specific.
So, the main plots, according to Max Akimov, are twelve:
FIRST plot, the most hackneyed - Cinderella. It is very stable, all variations fit into a clear plot outline"reference". The plot is loved by the authors of women's literature, often used by screenwriters of melodramas. There are a huge number of examples.
SECOND Plot - The Count of Monte Cristo is a secret hero who becomes apparent towards the end of the play, gaining wealth or opportunities from somewhere. His mission is to take revenge, or to do justice! The plot is very fond of the authors of adventure novels and detective stories. It appeared long before Alexandre Dumas, but this novelist most successfully “lit up” this plot, and after him, many used and used the above-named plot.
THIRD plot - Odyssey. This story can be called the first, it is extremely popular. Variations based on it can be different, but you just have to take a closer look, and the ears stick out quite clearly. Fiction writers, fantasy writers, authors of adventure literature, travel novels and some other genres are very fond of this ancient plot, and sometimes copy the details ancient Greek history, which can be conditionally considered the starting, reference.
FOURTH plot - Anna Karenina. Tragic love triangle. It has roots in ancient Greek tragedies, but Lev Nikolayevich managed to write it out most vividly and in detail. In the twentieth century, especially at the beginning and middle of the century, this plot was one of the most popular (even ordinary copies copied from Tolstoy, when skilled authors change only first names, historical scenery and other surroundings, I saw several). But there are many talented variations on this theme.
FIFTH plot - Hamlet. Strong personality with a moving mind. A broken hero, reflective and bright, fighting for justice, having tasted the betrayal of loved ones and other delights. Nothing, in the end, not achieving, only able to torture himself, but to achieve some spiritual enlightenment and purification, which encourages the viewer. Interesting as hell.
There is nothing to comment here. The plot is stable, very popular, there is a lot of Dostoevism in it, (native and close to the Russian heart, and to me in particular). At the present moment this plot popular as ever.
SIXTH plot - Romeo and Juliet. Story happy love. Total the number of repetitions of this plot exceeds the number of repetitions of all other plots, but for some reason there are very few talented works, you can literally count them on the fingers. However, in current serials, in fiction (especially women's), in dramaturgy and songwriting, the plot is unusually popular.
The plot, again, is extremely stable, as it has gone from antiquity to the present day, there are few special variations.
SEVENTH plot - Fathers and sons. Its origins are ancient Greek, the plot is complex, and now there is a lot of room for variations in it. This can also be conditionally attributed to the story of the bride of Jason, who is forced to choose between her father and the groom, to sacrifice one of them. In short, the whole variety of parental selfishness colliding with the selfishness of children describes this ancient tangle of plots, similar friend on a friend. There is also altruism of parents, and even less often altruism of children, but usually this ends in tragedy (as if someone has jinxed our entire human race. Ask King Lear, he will tell you).
EIGHTH plot - Robinson. It partly echoes Hamlet, primarily in the sound of the theme of loneliness, and a little with Odysseus, but the story of Robinson can still be called a separate big plot of world literature. Current writers and screenwriters often copy, word for word, the work of Daniel Defoe. But there are many talented and original variations. The hero, most often, is absolutely alone on the island, but this is not required condition, it happens that several heroes find themselves in some kind of isolation from big world trying to survive and remain individuals in order to eventually be saved. My favorite variation is the story of Saltykov-Shchedrin "How one man fed two generals."
NINTH story - Trojan theme, the theme of war. The confrontation between the two systems, enmity and hatred, the reverse side of which is nobility and self-denial. This plot, as a rule, is superimposed on other plots, or they are superimposed on it, but classic military novels, descriptions of wars in detail, with varying degrees of artistry, are also not uncommon. An organic part of this category of plots is the plot "Spartacus" - a story about a fighter, about a hero, whose personality is sometimes the opposite of the characteristics of reflective heroes, since the essence of Spartacus is a tough struggle as an image of salvation, as a way of life and way of thinking, a struggle intense, obvious, throwing call.
TENTH plot - Catastrophe and its consequences. Classical antique plot. At the present time, he was dragged so that it is reluctant to speak. There are a lot of mediocre copies, but occasionally there are also curious ones. The plot is very narrow in terms of semantic variations, but very broad in terms of descriptive possibilities, surroundings and details. But, to be honest, almost every next novel repeats the previous one, even if you don’t go to a fortune teller!
ELEVENTH plot - Ostap Bender - a picaresque novel, an adventurous novel. Sources and classic examples - in the literature of France of the New Time. Extremely popular these days, most often comedic. The tangle of plots is quite bright, and successful variations often come across, but all of them, one way or another, copy a couple of templates created at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Numerous novels, novellas and stories that exploit the image of an ironic private detective (or investigator) who acts as “Ostap Bender in reverse” can be conditionally attributed to the similarity of the same plot. Nowadays, a certain “picaresque detective” (sometimes a “picaresque action movie”) is popular and in demand, the main character of which solves crimes or scams (and sometimes secrets of the past).
This plot is often supplemented literary device, which can be conditionally called a “rebus story”, most television series (detective format) are built on it, as well as many book series, which are laid out in abundance on store shelves.
TWELVE plot - Time machine, journey into the future. His mirror reflection- stylization of travel to the past, historical novels. However this species works, as a rule, uses “journey into the past” only as an entourage, and the plot is one of those that I listed above, while “journey into the future” is often a “pure plot”, that is, its essence boils down precisely to the description Togo, how it all works there in this unknown future.
Well, this is an approximate list of the most frequently used, often touched upon by writers plots. Often plots come across in a standard form, but the writer who is smarter, who has read a lot, he, before sitting down at his desk, tries to find a synthesis of plots for himself, that is, to combine several basic plots in one work, and also to modify the original idea as much as possible. plot.
There is also such a phenomenon as plotless prose, something like a story-sketches, a novel-sketches (these genres can be defined in different ways). The literary merits of such texts are different, sometimes not bad, they can sound philosophical motives, imitation of Ovid, etc.
But still, there are often quite distinct modifications of the twelve plots that I have listed.
