"Verily, that was the golden age of our literature,
the period of her innocence and bliss! .. "
M. A. Antonovich
M. Antonovich in his article called the "golden age of literature" early XIX century - the period of creativity of A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol. Subsequently, this definition began to characterize the literature of all 19th century- up to the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy.
What are the main features of the Russian classical literature this period?
Fashionable at the beginning of the century, sentimentalism gradually fades into the background - the formation of romanticism begins, and from the middle of the century realism rules the ball.
New types of heroes appear in literature: " small man", which most often dies under the pressure of the foundations accepted in society and the "extra person" is a string of images, starting with Onegin and Pechorin.
Continuing the traditions of the satirical image, proposed by M. Fonvizin, in the literature of the 19th century satirical image vices modern society becomes one of the central motifs. Often satire takes on grotesque forms. Vivid examples- Gogol's "Nose" or "The History of a City" by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Another one distinguishing feature The literature of this period has an acute social orientation. Writers and poets are increasingly turning to socio-political topics, often plunging into the field of psychology. This leitmotif permeates the works of I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy. Appears new form- Russian realistic novel, with its deep psychologism, harshest criticism reality, irreconcilable enmity with the existing foundations and loud calls for renewal.
Well main reason, which prompted many critics to call the 19th century the golden age of Russian culture: the literature of this period, despite a number of unfavorable factors, had a powerful influence on the development of world culture as a whole. Absorbing all the best that world literature offered, Russian literature was able to remain original and unique.
Russian writers of the 19th century
V.A. Zhukovsky- Pushkin's mentor and his Teacher. It is Vasily Andreevich who is considered the founder of Russian romanticism. It can be said that Zhukovsky "prepared" the ground for Pushkin's bold experiments, since he was the first to expand the scope poetic word. After Zhukovsky, the era of the democratization of the Russian language began, which was so brilliantly continued by Pushkin.
Selected Poems:
A.S. Griboyedov went down in history as the author of one work. But what! Masterpiece! Phrases and quotes from the comedy "Woe from Wit" have long become winged, and the work itself is considered the first realistic comedy in the history of Russian literature.
Analysis of the work:
A.S. Pushkin. He was called differently: A. Grigoriev claimed that "Pushkin is our everything!", F. Dostoevsky "the great and incomprehensible Forerunner", and Emperor Nicholas I admitted that, in his opinion, Pushkin is "the most clever man in Russia". Simply put, this is Genius.
Pushkin's greatest merit is that he radically changed Russian literary language, saving him from pretentious abbreviations, like "young, breg, sweet", from the ridiculous "marshmallows", "Psyche", "Cupids", so revered in grandiloquent elegies, from borrowings, which were then so abundant in Russian poetry. Pushkin brought colloquial vocabulary, craft slang, elements of Russian folklore to the pages of printed publications.
A. N. Ostrovsky also pointed out another important achievement of this brilliant poet. Before Pushkin, Russian literature was imitative, stubbornly imposing traditions and ideals alien to our people. Pushkin, on the other hand, "gave courage to the Russian writer to be Russian", "revealed the Russian soul". In his stories and novels, for the first time, the theme of the morality of the social ideals of that time is so vividly raised. And the main character light hand Pushkin is now becoming an ordinary "little man" - with his thoughts and hopes, desires and character.
Analysis of works:
M.Yu. Lermontov- bright, mysterious, with a touch of mysticism and an incredible thirst for will. All his work is a unique fusion of romanticism and realism. Moreover, both directions do not oppose at all, but, as it were, complement each other. This man went down in history as a poet, writer, playwright and artist. He wrote 5 plays: the most famous is the drama "Masquerade".
And among prose works the real diamond of creativity was the novel "A Hero of Our Time" - the first realistic novel in prose in the history of Russian literature, where for the first time the writer tries to trace the "dialectics of the soul" of his hero, mercilessly exposing him psychological analysis. This pioneering creative method Lermontov in the future will be used by many Russian and foreign writers.
Selected works:
N.V. Gogol known as a writer and playwright, but it is no coincidence that one of his most famous works is " Dead Souls"is considered a poem. There is no other such Master of the word in world literature. Gogol's language is melodious, incredibly bright and figurative. This was most clearly manifested in his collection Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka."
On the other hand, N.V. Gogol is considered the ancestor " natural school", with its satire bordering on the grotesque, accusatory motifs and ridicule of human vices.
Selected works:
I.S. Turgenev- the greatest Russian novelist who established the canons of the classic novel. He continues the traditions established by Pushkin and Gogol. He often refers to the topic " extra person", striving through the fate of his hero to convey the relevance and significance of social ideas.
Turgenev's merit also lies in the fact that he became the first propagandist of Russian culture in Europe. This is a prose writer who opened the world of the Russian peasantry, intelligentsia and revolutionaries to foreign countries. And the string of female images in his novels became the pinnacle of the writer's skill.
Selected works:
A.N. Ostrovsky- an outstanding Russian playwright. Ostrovsky's merits were most precisely expressed by I. Goncharov, recognizing him as the creator of the Russian folk theater. The plays of this writer became a "school of life" for the playwrights of the next generation. And the Moscow Maly Theater, where most of the plays of this talented writer were staged, proudly calls itself the "Ostrovsky House".
Selected works:
I.A. Goncharov continued to develop the traditions of the Russian realistic novel. The author of the famous trilogy, who, like no one else, managed to describe major vice Russian people are lazy. With the light hand of the writer, the term "Oblomovism" also appeared.
Selected works:
L.N. Tolstoy- a real block of Russian literature. His novels are recognized as the pinnacle of the art of novel writing. The style of presentation and the creative method of L. Tolstoy are still considered the standard of the writer's skill. And his ideas of humanism had a huge impact on the development of humanistic ideas throughout the world.
Selected works:
N.S. Leskov- a talented successor to the traditions of N. Gogol. Made a huge contribution to the development of new genre forms in literature, such as pictures from life, rhapsodies, incredible events.
Selected works:
N.G. Chernyshevsky — eminent writer and a literary critic who proposed his theory of the aesthetics of the relationship of art to reality. This theory became the reference for the literature of the next few generations.
Selected works:
F.M. Dostoevsky — brilliant writer, whose psychological novels known all over the world. Dostoevsky is often called the forerunner of such trends in culture as existentialism and surrealism.
Selected works:
M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin — the greatest satirist, who brought the art of denunciation, ridicule and parody to the heights of mastery.
Selected works:
A.P. Chekhov. With this name, historians traditionally complete the era of the golden age of Russian literature. Chekhov was recognized throughout the world during his lifetime. His short stories have become a benchmark for short story writers. A Chekhov's plays had a huge impact on the development of world drama.
Selected works:
TO late XIX centuries of tradition critical realism began to gradually fade away. In a society permeated through and through with pre-revolutionary moods, mystical moods, partly even decadent ones, have come into fashion. They became the forerunner of the emergence of a new literary trend - symbolism and marked the beginning of a new period in the history of Russian literature - silver age poetry.
The 19th century is one of the most significant in Russian literature. It was this era that gave the world the names of the great classics, who influenced not only Russian, but also world culture. The main ideas inherent in the literature of this time are the growth human soul, the struggle between good and evil, the triumph of morality and purity.
Difference from the previous century
Giving general characteristics Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the previous century was distinguished by a very calm development. Throughout the previous century, poets and writers sang of the dignity of man, tried to instill high moral ideals. And only at the end of the century began to appear more daring and bold works- the authors began to focus on the psychology of man, his experiences and feelings.
Reasons for flourishing
In the process of working on homework or a report on the topic “General Characteristics of Russian Literature of the 19th Century”, a student may have a natural question: what caused these changes, why literature was able to achieve such high level development? The reason for this was social events - this is the war with Turkey, and the invasion of Napoleonic troops, and the abolition of serfdom, and public reprisals against oppositionists. All this led to the fact that completely new stylistic devices began to be applied in literature. Working on a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is worth mentioning that this era rightfully went down in history as the "Golden Age".
Orientation of literature
Russian literature of that time was distinguished by a very bold formulation of questions about the meaning of human being, about the most pressing socio-political, moral and ethical problems. The significance of these questions she deduces far beyond her own historical era. When preparing a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one must remember that it became one of the most powerful means of influencing both Russian and foreign readers, gaining fame as an influential force in the development of education.
Epoch phenomenon
If it is necessary to give a brief general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the common feature of this era was such a phenomenon as “literary centrism”. This means that literature has become a way of conveying ideas and opinions in political disputes. It has become a powerful tool for expressing ideology, defining value orientations and ideals.
It is impossible to say unequivocally whether this is good or bad. Of course, giving a general description of the Russian literature XIX century, one can reproach the literature of that time for being too "preaching", "mentoring". Indeed, it is often said that the desire to become a prophet can lead to inappropriate guardianship. And this is fraught with the development of intolerance towards dissent of any kind. Of course, there is some truth in such reasoning, however, when giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is necessary to take into account the historical realities in which the then writers, poets, and critics lived. AI Herzen, when he found himself in exile, described this phenomenon as follows: "For a people who have been deprived of freedom of speech and self-expression, literature remains almost the only outlet."
The role of literature in society
Almost the same thing was said by N. G. Chernyshevsky: “Literature in our country still concentrates the entire mental life of the people.” Pay attention to the word "yet" here. Chernyshevsky, who argued that literature is a textbook of life, still recognized that the mental life of the people should not be constantly concentrated in it. However, "for now", in those conditions of Russian reality, it was she who took on this function.
Modern society should be grateful to those writers and poets who, in the most difficult social conditions, despite the persecution (it is worth remembering the same N. G. Chernyshevsky, F. M. Dostoevsky and others), with the help of their works they contributed to the awakening of a bright man, spirituality, adherence to principles, active opposition to evil, honesty and mercy. Given all this, we can agree with the opinion expressed by N. A. Nekrasov in his message to Leo Tolstoy in 1856: “The role of a writer in our country, first of all, is the role of a teacher.”
Common and different in the representatives of the "Golden Age"
When preparing materials on the topic “General characteristics of Russian classical literature of the 19th century”, it is worth saying that all representatives of the “Golden Age” were different, their world was unique and peculiar. Writers of that time are difficult to bring under any one general image. After all, every true artist (this word means a poet, a composer, and a painter) creates own world guided by personal principles. For example, the world of Leo Tolstoy is not similar to the world of Dostoevsky. Saltykov-Shchedrin perceived and transformed reality differently than, for example, Goncharov. However, representatives of the "Golden Age" and common feature- this is a responsibility to the reader, a talent, a high idea of the role that literature plays in a person's life.
General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century: table
The "Golden Age" is the time of writers of completely different literary movements. To begin with, we will consider them in a summary table, after which each of the directions will be considered in more detail.
| Genre | When and where did it originate | Types of works | Representatives | Main features |
Classicism | 17th century, France | Ode, tragedy, epic | G. R. Derzhavin (“Anacreotic Songs”), Khersakov (“Bakharian”, “Poet”). | The national-historical theme prevails. The ode genre is predominantly developed. Has a satirical twist |
| Sentimentalism | In the second half XVIII V. V Western Europe and Russia, most fully formed in England | Tale, novel, elegy, memoir, travel | N. M. Karamzin (“ Poor Lisa»), early work V. A. Zhukovsky ("Slavyanka", "Sea", "Evening") | Subjectivity in assessing the events of the world. Feelings come first. Nature plays an important role. Protest against corruption high society. The cult of spiritual purity and morality. Rich is claimed inner world lower social strata. |
Romanticism | Late 18th - first half of the 19th century, Europe, America | short story, poem, tale, novel | A. S. Pushkin (“Ruslan and Lyudmila”, “Boris Godunov”, “Little Tragedies”), M. Yu. Lermontov (“Mtsyri”, “Demon”), F. I. Tyutchev (“Insomnia”, “In the Village”, “Spring”), K. N. Batyushkov. | The subjective prevails over the objective. A look at reality through the "prism of the heart". The tendency to reflect the unconscious and intuitive in a person. Gravity for fantasy, the conventions of all norms. A penchant for the unusual and the sublime, a mixture of the high and the low, the comic and the tragic. The personality in the works of romanticism aspires to absolute freedom, moral perfection, to the ideal in an imperfect world. |
| Realism | XIX c., France, England. | Story, novel, poem | Late A. S. Pushkin (“Dubrovsky”, “Tales of Belkin”), N. V. Gogol (“Dead Souls”), I. A. Goncharov, A. S. Griboyedov (“Woe from Wit”), F. M. Dostoevsky ("Poor People", "Crime and Punishment"), L. N. Tolstoy ("War and Peace", "Anna Karenina"), N. G. Chernyshevsky ("What to Do?"), I. S. Turgenev (“Asya”, “Rudin”), M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“Poshekhon stories”, “Gogolevs”), N. A. Nekrasov (“Who should live well in Rus'?”). | In the center literary work- objective reality. Realists seek to identify causal relationships in events. The principle of the typical is used: typical characters, circumstances, specific time are described. Usually realists turn to the problems of the present epoch. The ideal is reality itself. Increased attention to the social side of life. |
Russian literature of this era was a reflection of the leap that was made in the previous century. The "Golden Age" began mainly with the flowering of two currents - sentimentalism and romanticism. Since the middle of the century, the direction of realism has been gaining more and more power. Such is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century. The tablet will help the student to navigate the main trends and representatives of the "Golden Age". In the process of preparing for the lesson, it should be mentioned that the further socio-political situation in the country is becoming more and more tense, contradictions are growing between the oppressed classes and common people. This leads to the fact that in the middle of the century the development of poetry somewhat calms down. And the end of the era is accompanied by revolutionary moods.
Classicism
This direction is worth mentioning, giving a general description of Russian literature of the early 19th century. After all, classicism, which arose a century ago before the beginning of the "Golden Age", primarily refers to its beginning. This term, translated from Latin, means "exemplary" and is directly related to imitation classic images. This direction arose in France in the 17th century. At its core, it was associated with absolute monarchy and the establishment of the nobility. It is characterized by ideas of high civic topics, strict observance of the norms of creativity, established rules. Classicism reflects real life in ideal images that gravitate towards a certain pattern. This direction strictly adheres to the hierarchy of genres - the highest place among them is occupied by tragedy, ode and epic. It is they who illuminate the most important problems for society, are designed to reflect the highest, heroic displays human nature. As a rule, "high" genres were opposed to "low" ones - fables, comedies, satirical and other works that also reflected reality.
Sentimentalism
Giving a general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century, one cannot fail to mention such a direction as sentimentalism. In him big role plays the voice of the narrator. This direction, as indicated in the table, differs increased attention to the experiences of man, to his inner world. This is the innovation of sentimentalism. In Russian literature, Karamzin's "Poor Lisa" occupies a special place among the works of sentimentalism.
Noteworthy are the words of the writer, which can characterize this direction: "And peasant women know how to love." Many have claimed that a common person, commoner and peasant, moral attitude in many ways superior to a nobleman or a representative of high society. Landscape plays an important role in sentimentalism. This is not just a description of nature, but a reflection of the inner experiences of the characters.
Romanticism
This is one of the most controversial phenomena of Russian literature of the Golden Age. For more than a century and a half, there have been disputes about what lies at its basis, and no one has yet given any recognized definition of this trend. The representatives of this trend themselves emphasized the originality of the literature of each individual people. One cannot but agree with this opinion - in every country romanticism acquires its own features. Also, giving a general description of the development of Russian literature in the 19th century, it is worth noting that almost all representatives of romanticism stood up for social ideals, but they did it in different ways.
Representatives of this movement dreamed not of improving life in its particular manifestations, but of the complete resolution of all contradictions. Many romantics in their works are dominated by the mood of fighting evil, protesting against the injustice reigning in the world. Romantics also tend to turn to the mythological, fantasy, folk tales. In contrast to the direction of classicism, a serious influence is given to the inner world of a person.
Realism
The purpose of this direction is a true description surrounding reality. It is realism that matures on the soil of a tense political situation. Writers begin to turn to social problems, to objective reality. The three main realists of this era are Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and Turgenev. The main theme of this direction is life, customs, events from the life of ordinary people from the lower classes.
National features Russian literature
You will have to take into account the national peculiarity, that we have an attitude to literature "not like people." That is, we calmly look at a earning locksmith, engineer, businessman, athlete, scientist, inventor. We take it just as calmly, as I already said, that Stephen King, for example, receives nine million dollars for each book. But as soon as any writer in our country allows himself to write not one book a year, but two or three, we immediately hear from everywhere disappointed: oh, he earns!
That is, everyone can earn here, except for writers. Writers, on the other hand, are singled out by the mass consciousness into a special category of people who must selflessly, and therefore disinterestedly and at the expense of health, family and other things, carry the Great Truths to the masses. And it doesn't matter that any truths that the writer gives out will be immediately ridiculed and trampled on by the same readers. All the same, the writer remains the same requirement that has been presented since the birth of literature in Rus': to carry Revelations, Teachings, Instructions, Prophecies, Show the Way ...
For entertainment, for relaxation and just for fun and enjoy reading we have the same steven kings, and here domestic writer should carry the Truth to the masses. Agree, a very flattering opinion about our literature, flattering demands on our writers, but ... because of him, the domestic writer finds himself with one foot in Western world, the other is in ours. In the West, it’s simple: they look at a book like a bun, a T-shirt or shoes, that is, a product. And they understand that the manufacturer must earn money on a good-quality product.
We are still ashamed to make money on books. Not good. Blasphemous. Anyone who starts earning more on books than on bread and water immediately becomes an outcast, not only in the eyes of the highbrow literary elite, but even in the opinion of the readers themselves. They buy and read willingly, but they say out loud: yes, but this is not N, whose books they don’t buy and don’t read, but they heard his last name and saw his PR on the chewing gum.
So you're in a shitty position, and if not nerves of steel, then immediately better in business, in business, it's easier there.
Yes, if in the West literature is a purely commercial phenomenon, where only the ability to write well is required from the author, then in our country the author is required, first of all, to be “smart”. Some teacher in life, gave answers to eternal questions. If he does not do this, but simply writes, writes well, his books fly away, then the same readers who willingly buy up his books still contemptuously call him ... a hack.
Consider... and still go your own way!
From the book Digital Photography to simple examples author Birzhakov Nikita MikhailovichNational features In Egypt, it is customary to bargain, local merchants love this process. Sometimes you can buy something at a price several times lower than originally stated. It is better to find out in advance the cost of a product or service, otherwise you may overpay, naively
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (NA) of the author TSB From the book Philosophy Cheat Sheet: Answers to Exam Tickets author Zhavoronkova Alexandra Sergeevna From the book Encyclopedic Dictionary of winged words and expressions author Serov Vadim Vasilievich From the book Sociology: Cheat Sheet author author unknown From the book Commodity Research: Cheat Sheet author author unknownThe Golden Age of Russian Literature From the article "The Literary Crisis" (Sovremennik. 1863. No. 1,2) by the Russian critic, publicist Maxim Alekseevich Antonovich (1835-1918). For the Sovremennik magazine (chief editor N. A. Nekrasov), in which M. A. Antonovich was one of the editors, this
From your mother's book, sir! An Illustrated Dictionary of American Slang author Moskovtsev Nikolai G18. MARXIST TREND IN RUSSIAN SOCIOLOGY. SUBJECTIVE SOCIOLOGY IN RUSSIAN SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT The Marxist trend in Russian sociology was represented by G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Lenin. N.I. Bukharin, A.A. Bogdanov, P.S. Gribakin. P.B. Struve, M.I.
From the book Something for Odessa author Wasserman Anatoly Alexandrovich25. NATIONAL STANDARDS National standardization system - national standards and all-Russian classifiers of technology - economic and social information, including the rules for their development and application. National standard - a standard approved by
From the book Etiquette in a restaurant the author Vos ElenaNational characteristics Most peoples deserve each other. Let's start with a quote. Here are the theoretical considerations of the soloist of the "Leningrad" group Sergei Shnurov (folk stage name - Shnur), a well-known practitioner and pop popularizer of swearing: "Abroad there is no concept
From the book How to become a writer ... in our time author Nikitin Yuri From the book How to defeat any opponent in emergency situations. Special forces secrets author Kashin Sergey Pavlovich From the book The Big Book of Aphorisms about Love authorThe tragedy of Russian literature in our time ... The tragedy of Russian literature lies precisely in the fact that it is “spiritual food”. This is not even from Orthodoxy, we are much closer connected with the East than with the West, it is from the East that we have a prophetic theme in literature, teaching and instructing. It's on
From the book Thoughts, aphorisms, quotes. Business, career, management author Dushenko Konstantin Vasilievich From the book ABC literary creativity, or From the test of the pen to the master of the Word author Getmansky Igor OlegovichNational Features of Love Indians do not consider it shameful if a woman is given to someone for an elephant; by all accounts, it is an honor for a woman that her beauty is equal to the price of an elephant.? Arrian, ancient Greek historian (II century) In the East, women often do not see their husbands until
From the author's bookNational features of business See also « international trade"(p.185) America's business is to do business. Calvin Coolidge (1872–1933), US President America is not a country of money, but a country of wealth; not a country of rich people, but a country of successful workers. Henry Ford (1863–1947), American
From the author's bookThe original "as a mirror of Russian literature Intellectual prose ... Probably, the reading public has long been waiting for the appearance of something like this, however, without indicating this expectation in any way. They have long been swallowed and left forever in the past without the right to be revived in the present
The nineteenth century in Russian literature is the most significant for Russia. In this century, A.S. began to show their creativity. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.N. Ostrovsky. All their works are unique and carry great meaning in themselves. Even to this day, their works are held in schools.
All works are usually divided into two periods: the first half of the nineteenth century and the second. This is noticeable in the problems of the work and the visual means used.
What are the features of Russian literature in the nineteenth century?
The first is that A.N. Ostrovsky is considered to be a reformer who brought a lot of innovations to dramatic works. He was the first to touch on the most exciting topics of that time. Not afraid to write about the problems of the lower class. Also, A.N. Ostrovsky was the first to be able to show the moral state of the souls of the heroes.
Secondly, and I.S. Turgenev is known for his novel Fathers and Sons. He touched eternal themes love, compassion, friendship and the theme of the relationship between the old generation and the new.
And, of course, this is F.M. Dostoevsky. His themes in his works are extensive. Faith in God, the problem of small people in the world, the humanity of people - he touches on all this in his works.
Thanks to the writers of the nineteenth century, today's youth can learn kindness and the most sincere feelings through the works of great people. The world is lucky that in the nineteenth century these talented people which gave all mankind new food for thought, opened up new problematic topics, taught sympathy for the neighbor and pointed out the mistakes of people: their callousness, deceit, envy, renunciation of God, humiliation of another person and their selfish motives.
Some interesting essays
- Composition Describe some thing (toy, household item) Grade 5
Even though my room is very spacious, it looks nice and tasteful. My favorite piece of furniture is my desk. We bought it relatively recently.
- Composition Is cruelty appropriate in war?
Considering the history of mankind, it can be argued that wars are an integral part of human relationships. With their help, people often resolve their conflicts that may arise between states.
- Analysis of the novel Fathers and Sons of Turgenev
The novel "Fathers and Sons" takes the reader to the times of serfdom. The story takes place in 1959 and ends in 1869. And this was not done by the author by chance, since it was during this period
- Where do dreams lead? Final essay
Events in our lives can often affect our dreams. Constant changes in point of view can make us see the world a little differently every time. These events inspire us and change our dreams.
- Epilogue and its role in Dostoevsky's novel Crime and Punishment essay
The epilogue of the novel "Crime and Punishment" by Dostoevsky occupies a special place in the work. It is permeated with the light of spirituality and hope for a wonderful future.
We are so accustomed to the awareness of the height and uniqueness of Russian classical literature that this truth has long been beaten to us, requiring no proof or special reflection. And this is bad: not wanting to think, using more school years templates, we are poorly aware of the originality of Russian literature and more often confine ourselves to arrogant confidence in the artistic superiority of the works of Russian geniuses over all others, rather than just feeding our own pride.
For many reasons, the properties of the objective and the subjective, the main originality of Russian classical literature, were hardly touched upon by its numerous researchers and critics. Philosophical, ethical, aesthetic, social, political problems associated with this great manifestation of Russian national spirit, character, our national culture, traced in their development almost thoroughly. Traditional literary criticism sees the main value of the work of our classics only in the critical pathos of their works. But even if there is some truth in this approach, it is still secondary to the most important thing in Russian literature - its religious, Orthodox worldview, the nature of the reflection of reality.
The religiosity of our literature is manifested not in a simple connection with church life, nor in exclusive attention to plots. Holy Scripture- not at all. (Just the interpretation of the gospel themes can be anti-Orthodox, and even anti-religious, as, for example, by M.A. Bulgakov in the novel “The Master and Margarita” or in “The Scaffold” by C.T. Aitmatov.) Russian writers looked at life events, characters and aspirations of people, illuminating them with the light of the gospel truth, thought in the categories of Orthodoxy, and not only in direct publicistic speeches (“Selected passages from correspondence with friends” by N.V. Gogol, “Diary of a writer” by F.M. Dostoevsky) this was manifested, but also in the artistic creation itself.
To begin with, let's trust an outsider's view, let's think about how non-Russian writers perceived the creations of Russian writers.
Stefan Zweig:
“Open any of the 50,000 books produced annually in Europe. What are they talking about? About happiness. A woman wants a husband or someone wants to get rich, become powerful and respected. For Dickens, the goal of all aspirations will be a pretty cottage in the bosom of nature with a cheerful crowd of children, for Balzac - a castle with a peerage title and millions. And if we look around, in the streets, in the shops, in low rooms and bright halls - what do people want there? To be happy, contented, rich, powerful. Which of the heroes of Dostoevsky aspires to this? - Nobody. No one".
Turkish translator and critic Erol Güney:
"The ideal of the heroes created by Dickens is good house, happy family life. The heroes of Balzac strive to acquire magnificent castles, to accumulate millions. However, neither the heroes of Turgenev, nor the heroes of Dostoevsky, nor the heroes of Tolstoy are looking for anything like this ... Russian writers demand a lot from people. They do not agree that people put their interests and their egoism in the forefront.
Conscience was affirmed by our writers as the basic measure of all things. Not outward success in life, comfortable well-being - which was affirmed in Western literatures as the ideal of all people's aspirations - but conscience as the foundation of the foundations of human existence. Here's what is important: not private questions, but the most important, general ones - worried the consciousness and soul of the creators of Russian literature. And in this it is united throughout its history - from the great "Sermon on Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion. New Literature, although we single it out especially, was built on the traditions of previous centuries, these traditions were sanctified by the ideals of Orthodoxy. This is the main feature of great Russian literature: it is primarily Orthodox literature.
It was Orthodoxy that influenced close attention a person to his spiritual essence, to inner self-deepening - reflected in literature. This is, in general, the basis of the Russian worldview and the Russian way of being in the world. The outstanding Russian philosopher I.V. Kireevsky wrote about it this way: “Western man sought by the development of external means to alleviate the severity of internal shortcomings. The Russian man strove to escape the severity of external needs by internally rising above external needs. And this could be determined only by the Orthodox worldview. For the very underlying understanding of Orthodoxy of salvation - that is, the goal of all earthly existence - differs significantly from what we can find in Western confessions. Western man understands salvation as a reward for some good deed (Catholicism), or as something that he receives only by virtue of faith (Protestantism). The Catholic “earns” his salvation, “redeems” his own sin by the labor of virtue. For the Protestant, the problem does not even come to light: according to his judgment, the Savior has already “paid” for it. Protestantism generally removes the question of the need for good deeds for salvation, aims a person at external practical activity as the main content of his being in the world.
Salvation in Orthodoxy is comprehended as an internal rebirth of a person, his spiritual transfiguration, deification. Saint Isaac the Syrian wrote: “Virtue is the mother of sorrow; out of sorrow comes humility; grace is given to humility. And then the reward is no longer for virtue, and not for labor for its sake, but for humility born from them. If it is lost, then the first ones will be in vain” (62nd ascetic instruction. Philokalia. Vol. 2). This is amazing: it is not virtue that is crowned with a reward and not good deeds for its sake, but humility! Without humility and virtue is in vain! Sin cannot be "worked out" good deeds, it can be overcome only by inner rebirth, the beginning of which is humility.
But why is humility at the heart of salvation? Because it establishes a system of true criteria for a sober assessment of the real state of a person’s inner world, allows everyone to clearly see the true sinfulness of their own soul (“virtue is the mother of sorrow”).
The transformation of virtue into an end in itself can give rise to arrogance in the soul when this goal is achieved (not only imaginary, but also genuine), it can lead to intoxication with one’s own perfection and thereby strengthen human pride, the source of world evil. That is why the holy ascetic teaches us: without humility, virtue is in vain. Without humility, a person does not recognize his need for a Savior. He claims himself to be the bringer of salvation. That is, in the end he becomes an anti-Christian.
And so we see: Orthodoxy establishes the only true point of view on life - and this is what Russian literature assimilates (not always in full) as the main idea, thus becoming Orthodox in its spirit.
Orthodox literature teaches the Orthodox view of man, establishes the correct view of the inner world of man, determines the most important criterion for evaluating the inner being of man: humility.
So we, by the way, once again make sure that religious tenets, which are presented to many as something far from life, scholastically abstract, the subject of meaningless theological disputes, in fact, have a decisive effect on a person’s worldview, his awareness of his place in being, on his method of thinking. Moreover: religious dogmas shaped the character of the nation, the political and economic originality of its history, the fate of peoples.
That is why the new Russian literature (always behind the Old Russian) saw its task and the meaning of existence in kindling and maintaining the spiritual fire in human hearts. This is where the recognition of conscience as the measure of all life values comes from. Russian writers recognized their work as a prophetic ministry (which the rest, Catholic and Protestant Europe did not know), the attitude towards literary figures as visionaries, soothsayers has been preserved in the Russian mind to this day - albeit already muffled.
It is important that those processes in the literature of the 19th century that developed, as it were, outside Orthodox tradition, are characterized not by indifference towards religion, but by active repulsion from it, opposition to Orthodoxy. This allows us to consider these processes in close connection with the general course of the entire literary work of the Russian classics.
It would be wrong to say that the most important feature of Russian literature was not at all touched upon by those who thought about it and wrote about it; Russians religious philosophers, from the Slavophiles to the "Vekhi" undoubtedly looked at literature precisely from this point of view, however, literary criticism was not their primary specialty, so references to the work of a particular writer were episodic. This could not have been expected at all from professional critics of the revolutionary democratic persuasion, as well as from the so-called “Soviet” literary criticism that inherited their traditions (we will not talk about the impossibility of religious comprehension of literature under the dominance of an ideology of a certain kind).
The situation begins to improve only in Lately. The émigré heritage is being assimilated, in-depth studies of the work of Russian classics, carried out by domestic literary critics, appear. However, we are only at the beginning of a long process of renewed historical knowledge of Russian literature. The most important task of such knowledge becomes clear: the transition from a social or purely aesthetic analysis of literature to a religious one. Our literature was (let us use Gogol's image) an "invisible step" to Christ; it mainly reflected the test of faith that took place in the life of the people and the individual, which, in fact, is the main test to which we are subject in our earthly life.
But in our reflections on the most important domestic literature(as well as in the very understanding of life by Russian writers) - what to rely on in order to understand the essential? As Gogol wrote: “You can’t invent anything higher than what is already in the Gospel.” Of course, every Orthodox person must look for the criterion of truth in the gospel revelations, must verify all his reasoning, as well as everything in general, generated by the human mind, by the word of the Savior.
We will find support for ourselves in the Sermon on the Mount: “Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust destroy and where thieves dig and steal; but store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust destroys, and where thieves do not break in and steal…” (Matthew 6:19-20). This great commandment defines the secret essence of two understandings of the meaning of human life, as well as two worldviews, two different types of thinking, two types of culture. In these words of Christ is an indication of the meaning of the division that He brought into the world (Luke 12:51-53). Two systems of life values associated with one or another orientation of a person in the earthly world also determine the difference in the understanding of good and evil in general.
After all, if we do not philosophize slyly, then each of us understands by good that which in one way or another contributes to the achievement of the goal of being conscious of us. Under evil is that which hinders such an achievement. And if someone sets himself exclusively material goals (collecting treasures on earth), then everything spiritual will only interfere with him and be perceived as evil. And vice versa.
The preference for one or the other is a matter of conscience and freedom of each. It is only necessary to clearly realize that the now so glorified Western civilization is nothing but a striving for the absolute fullness of the enjoyment of treasures on earth. And the so-called progress is the search for more and more perfect means for mastering such treasures.
The desire for earthly things is understandable and close to everyone: there is no need to explain what it is. It should only be clarified that not only direct wealth and the sensual pleasures associated with them, but sometimes also the rejection of exclusively material values for the sake of, for example, earthly power (recall the external asceticism of many tyrants and despots), fame, the desire for self-affirmation in society, etc. Even what seems to others to belong to a purely spiritual sphere can also become a purely earthly value. For example, aesthetic experiences that are turned into an end in itself - for the sake of egoistic spiritual pleasure. Or love, understood as possession (not only in the physiological, but also in moral sense). Even moral searches, when they are carried out for the sake of finding means for a more prosperous earthly arrangement, even they can turn out to be unspiritual in their basis. This happened with Leo Tolstoy, for example, who rejected the idea of salvation, and from the whole teaching of Christ, he accepted only moral postulates, which he wanted precisely to adapt to the arrangement of social life, but whose value, apart from Divine Revelation, turned out to be very doubtful. The Church of Christ can also become an earthly treasure in the minds of people when they begin to consider it, like other pragmatic politicians, only as a means suitable for use in the struggle for power.
One way or another, but the craving for earthly treasures is observed at all levels of our earthly existence. And it cannot but become the subject of philosophical and aesthetic reflection.
But where is the criterion for collecting treasures? How to determine exactly what a person collects? Indeed, due to necessity, everyone is forced to exist in the earthly world and cannot do without earthly, material things, connections, thoughts. Christ made this criterion clear and simple:
“For where your treasure is, there your heart will be also” (Matthew 6:21).
What do we get attached to with our hearts - after all, we quite definitely feel this if we begin to listen to the voice of conscience - which is why we so often suppress it in order to drive away the unsightly truth from ourselves.
Here main topic Russian literature - the confrontation between two strivings that tear our soul and heart - for heavenly treasures and earthly treasures. This is a topic, a problem not just of literature exclusively, it is a problem of life, creative searches (often throwing) and the writers themselves, whose path was by no means direct and directed only to mountain heights, but marked by many mistakes, falls, deviation from the Truth.
Man is doomed to choose between good and evil, but he aggravates the tragedy of his existence contained in this by throwing between different understandings of good and evil. It is this confusion of the soul that Russian literature has highlighted, making it, in fact, the main subject of its compassionate research. She managed to introduce the reader to such inner experiences, such torments of conscience, to immerse him in such abysses of the soul, of which the literature of the near-European had very little idea.
Western man and generally easier. The "commercial soteriology" (from the Greek "soterio" - salvation) of Catholicism, the Protestant denial of the need for any internal struggle with sin make life outwardly clearer and more joyful, in a sense more harmonious, devoid of spiritual torment. It is worth re-reading the reflections of writers cited a little earlier, comparing Russian and Western literature, in order to easily be convinced that the differences are determined precisely by the different directions of internal aspirations - Western writers (and readers) for purely earthly treasures and Russians - for unearthly. A Western person can, of course, suffer, but from the absence of a million, a title, a cottage, etc. And only in Russian literature is it possible for a hero to appear who suffers, possessing all such benefits in abundance:
I am young, my life is strong;
What should I expect? Longing, longing!..
How to relate to such suffering depends on the understanding of life by each of us. Some will consider it a manifestation of madness. But Russian people turned out to be doomed to such a thing (although not everyone without exception, of course), and literature accurately reflected this. And this happened because the vector itself spiritual aspirations was turned by Orthodoxy in the opposite direction from earthly blessings.
One of the most important problems that initially confronted the Russian Orthodox consciousness was precisely this problem - the choice between heavenly and earthly treasures. Metropolitan Hilarion of Kiev spoke about this directly, enlightening Rus' in the "Sermon on Law and Grace", back in the 11th century. (In fact, Russian literature in general begins with this work.) Thus, from the early years of Christianity in Rus', Truth and Grace were affirmed side by side and inseparably by the word of the Saint. Deep thought: By the Law a person is affirmed in his own egoism, by Grace he is saved in generous self-giving to the whole created world. The preference for one or the other depends on the understanding of the destiny of a person. Those who wish to assert themselves on earth prefer the Law, those striving for salvation in the heavenly world prefer Grace. Where is the Truth? The question for the Orthodox consciousness is rhetorical.
But to know the Truth and follow the Truth - what an abyss there is sometimes between these two states. And what a torment for a person from the feeling of that abyss not just anywhere, but in his very soul. The holy righteous John of Kronstadt spoke about this: “To be a spirit, to have spiritual needs and aspirations and not find satisfaction with them - what a torment for the soul!”
Such torments became, first of all, the subject of aesthetic reflection and reflection in Russian literature. But not a reason for detached contemplation and cold rational analysis, but the subject of the artist's own mental torment.
The main reason for such torments was precisely that happy (by the highest standard) circumstance that, no matter how strong it was western influence, no matter how victoriously penetrated into Russian life earthly temptation, but Orthodoxy still remained uneradicated, remained with all the fullness of the Truth contained in it - and could not disappear anywhere. Souls were damaged - yes! - but no matter how the public and private life of Russians wandered in the dark labyrinths of temptations, the needle of the spiritual compass still stubbornly pointed in the same direction, even if the majority moved in the opposite direction. For a Westerner, let's say it again, it was easier: for him, intact landmarks did not exist, so even if he went astray, he sometimes could not even suspect it at all.
They marveled at the internal torments of a Russian person, they were perplexed and even mocked, but they gave a strong hardening, strengthened spiritual strength, spread a cleansing influence on the world around them. This is primarily reflected in our literature.
We confine ourselves to one example - but authoritative and instructive. In the memoirs of the famous church leader the first third of the twentieth century, Metropolitan Evlogy (Georgievsky), we find evidence that is too important for understanding the merits of Russian literature. Vladyka Evlogii tells how in his early youth, in the first two years of his seminary life, he was notable for his unworthy behavior and way of life. And what helped to avoid falling? Reading Russian literature. " educational value literature for young people is enormous, - the memoirist asserts based on his own experience. - It is difficult even to take into account the measure of her beneficial influence. It increased self-knowledge, saved from rudeness, licentiousness, ugliness of actions, nourished the tendency of the youthful soul to idealism. I began to straighten up, study well, I had mental inquiries, more serious interests ... My passion for literature ... paved the way for further spiritual development ... "
Additional explanations, perhaps, are not required at all.
Our literature has captured in word and image the religious experience of a Russian person: both bright and dark, both saving and dangerous for the soul. The experience of faith and the experience of unbelief.
Mikhail Dunaev
REFERENCE
Mikhail Mikhailovich Dunaev (1945–2008), doctor philological sciences, Doctor of Theology, Professor, Lecturer at the Moscow Theological Academy (1990–2008). Author of more than 200 books and articles, including the 6-volume work "Orthodoxy and Russian Literature", based on the course of lectures by M.M. Dunaev at MDA.
