Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary) is the artistic style of European art of the 17th–19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest model and reliance on traditions high renaissance. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of the harmonious structure of society, but in many respects lost them in comparison with the culture of the Renaissance. The conflicts of the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason testify to the complexity of the art of classicism. art forms classicism is characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images.

Classicism is associated with the Enlightenment, based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on ideas about the rational laws of the world. According to the lofty ethical ideas, the educational program of art, the aesthetics of classicism established a hierarchy of genres - “high” (tragedy, epic, ode, history, mythology, religious picture etc.) and "low" (comedy, satire, fable, conversation piece etc.). In literature (the tragedies of P. Corneille, J. Racine, Voltaire, the comedies of Moliere, the poem "The Art of Poetry" and the satires of N. Boileau, the fables of J. La Fontaine, the prose of F. La Rochefoucauld, J. La Bruyère in France, the work of the Weimar period of I.V. Goethe and F. Schiller in Germany, the odes of M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin, the tragedies of A. P. Sumarokov and Ya. B. Knyazhnin in Russia), the leading role is played by significant ethical collisions, normative typified images. For theatrical art(Mondori, Duparc, M. Chanmelet, A.L. Leken, F.J. Talma, Rachel in France, F.K. Neuber in Germany, F.G. Volkov, I.A. Dmitrevsky in Russia) are characterized by solemn, static structure of performances, measured reading of poetry.

The main features of Russian classicism: an appeal to images and forms ancient art; heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative; the plot is based, as a rule, on love triangle: the heroine is a hero-lover, a second lover; at the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished, and good triumphs; the principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action. For example, Fonvizin's comedy "Undergrowth" can be cited. In this comedy, Fonvizin tries to implement the main idea of ​​classicism - to re-educate the world with a reasonable word. Positive characters talk a lot about morality, life at court, the duty of a nobleman. Negative characters become an example of inappropriate behavior. Behind the clash of personal interests are seen public positions heroes.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, coming from the philosophy of Descartes. Piece of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in every phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism became the first complete literary direction, and his influence practically did not affect prose: all theories of classicism were partly devoted to poetry, but mostly to dramaturgy. This direction arises in France in the 16th century, and flourishes about a century later.

The history of the emergence of classicism

The emergence of classicism was due to the era of absolutism in Europe, when a person was considered just a servant of his state. The main idea of ​​classicism is civil service, key concept classicism is the concept of duty. Accordingly, the key conflict of all classic works is the conflict of passion and reason, feelings and duty: negative characters live, obeying their emotions, and positive characters live only by reason, and therefore always turn out to be winners. Such a triumph of reason was due philosophical theory rationalism, which was proposed by Rene Descartes: I think, therefore I am. He wrote that not only man is reasonable, but all living things in general: reason is given to us from God.

Features of classicism in literature

The founders of classicism carefully studied the history of world literature and decided for themselves that the most sensibly organized literary process V Ancient Greece. It was the ancient rules that they decided to imitate. In particular, from ancient theater was borrowed rule of three unities: unity of time (more than a day cannot pass from the beginning to the end of the play), unity of place (everything happens in one place) and unity of action (there should be only one storyline).

Another technique borrowed from the ancient tradition was the use mask heroes- stable roles that move from play to play. In typical classic comedies we are always talking about the extradition of a girl, so the masks there are as follows: mistress (the girl-bride herself), soubrette (her servant-girlfriend, confidante), a stupid father, at least three suitors (one of them is necessarily positive, i.e. hero- lover) and hero-reasoner (main positive character, usually appears at the end). At the end of the comedy, some intrigue is necessary, as a result of which the girl will marry a positive groom.

Classical comedy composition should be very clear, must contain five acts: exposition, plot, plot development, climax and denouement.

There was a reception unexpected outcome(or deus ex machina) - the appearance of a god from the machine, which puts everything in its place. IN Russian tradition such heroes often turned out to be the state. Also used receiving catharsis- purification through compassion, when sympathizing with those who have fallen into difficult situation negative characters, the reader had to be cleansed spiritually.

Classicism in Russian literature

A.P. brought the principles of classicism to Russia. Sumarokov. In 1747, he published two treatises - Epistol on poetry and Epistol on the Russian language, where he sets out his views on poetry. In fact, these epistles were translated from French, a paraphrase for Russia of Nicolas Boileau's treatise The Poetic Art. Sumarokov predetermines that main theme Russian classicism will be a social theme, dedicated to the interaction of people with society.

Later, a circle of novice playwrights appeared, headed by I. Elagin and the theater theorist V. Lukin, who offer a new literary idea- so-called. declination theory. Its meaning is that you only need to understandably translate Western comedy into Russian, replacing all the names there. Many similar plays appeared, but in general the idea was not very realized. The main significance of the Elagin circle was that it was there that D.I. Fonvizin, who wrote the comedy

Classicism- art style and aesthetic direction in European art XVII-XIX centuries

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism asserted the personality of a person as supreme value being, freeing him from the religious-ecclesiastical influence. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed French and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. The "low" genres also reached a high development - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the "legislator of Parnassus", the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise "Poetic Art". Under his influence in Great Britain were the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope, who made the alexandrine the main form of English poetry. The English prose of the era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by Latinized syntax.

Classicism of the 18th century develops under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The purpose of creativity is to change the world in better side, construction in accordance with the laws of classicism of the society itself. From the positions of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson surveyed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick.

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are intended primarily to capture stable generic features that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under great influence Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism received great development genres requiring mandatory author's assessment historical reality: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

In connection with the call proclaimed by Rousseau to closeness to nature and naturalness in classicism late XVIII centuries, crises are growing; the cult of tender feelings - sentimentalism - is replacing the absolutization of reason. The transition from classicism to pre-romanticism was most clearly reflected in German literature the era of "Sturm und Drang", represented by the names of J. W. Goethe (1749-1832) and F. Schiller (1759-1805), who, following Rousseau, saw in art main force upbringing of a person.

The main features of Russian classicism:

1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.

2. Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.

3. The plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover.

4. At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.

5. The principle of three unities: time (action lasts no more than a day), place, action.

Romanticism as a literary movement.

Romanticism (fr. romanticisme) is a phenomenon European culture V XVIII-XIX centuries, which is a reaction to the Enlightenment and stimulated by it scientific and technical progress; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture end of the 18th century - the first half of XIX century. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature.

Romanticism first arose in Germany, among the writers and philosophers of the Jena school (W. G. Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, the brothers F. and A. Schlegel). The philosophy of romanticism was systematized in the works of F. Schlegel and F. Schelling. IN further development german romanticism is distinguished by an interest in fairy tales and mythological motives, which was especially clearly expressed in the work of the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, Hoffmann. Heine, starting his work within the framework of romanticism, later subjected him to a critical revision.

England is largely due to German influence. In England, its first representatives are the poets of the Lake School, Wordsworth and Coleridge. They set theoretical basis of his direction, having become acquainted during a trip to Germany with the philosophy of Schelling and the views of the first German romantics. English romanticism is characterized by an interest in social problems: they oppose to modern bourgeois society the old, pre-bourgeois relations, the glorification of nature, simple, natural feelings.

A prominent representative of English romanticism is Byron, who, in the words of Pushkin, "clothed in dull romanticism and hopeless egoism." His work is imbued with the pathos of struggle and protest against modern world, the chanting of freedom and individualism.

Romanticism spread to other European countries, for example, in France (Chateaubriand, J. Stahl, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Prosper Merimee, George Sand), Italy (N. W. Foscolo, A. Manzoni, Leopardi), Poland (Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Slovak , Zygmunt Krasiński, Cyprian Norwid) and in the USA (Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, W.K. Bryant, Edgar Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Longfellow, Herman Melville).

It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russians often refer to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism). poetic works 1790-1800s). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad is created, romantic drama. A new idea of ​​the essence and meaning of poetry is affirmed, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry was an empty pastime, something completely serviceable, is no longer possible.

The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, the “Russian Byron”, can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and the overcoming of romanticism in Russia.

Heroes are bright, exceptional personalities in unusual circumstances. Romanticism is characterized by an impulse, an extraordinary complexity, an inner depth of human individuality. Rejection of artistic authorities. There are no genre partitions, stylistic distinctions. Only desire for total freedom creative imagination. For example, the greatest French poet and writer Victor Hugo and his world famous novel"Notre Dame Cathedral".

Classicism is an artistic and architectural trend in the world culture of the 17th-19th centuries, where the aesthetic ideals of antiquity became a role model and creative guide. Having originated in Europe, the trend also actively influenced the development of Russian urban planning. The classical architecture created at that time is rightfully considered a national treasure.

Historical background

• As a style of architecture, the classics originated in the 17th century in France and at the same time in England, naturally continuing cultural values Renaissance.

In these countries, the rise and flourishing of the monarchy was observed, the values ​​​​of Ancient Greece and Rome were perceived as an example of an ideal state structure and harmonious interaction between man and nature. The idea of ​​a reasonable arrangement of the world has penetrated into all spheres of society.

• The second stage in the development of the classical direction dates back to the 18th century, when the motive for turning to historical traditions was the philosophy of rationalism.

In the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of ​​the logic of the universe and following strict canons were sung. Classical traditions in architecture: simplicity, clarity, rigor - came to the fore instead of excessive pomposity and an excess of decorative baroque and rococo.

• The theorist of style is considered the Italian architect Andrea Palladio (another name for classicism is "Palladianism").

At the end of the 16th century, he described in detail the principles of the ancient order system and the modular construction of buildings, and put them into practice in the construction of urban palazzos and country villas. A characteristic example of the mathematical precision of proportions is the Villa Rotunda, decorated with Ionic porticoes.

Classicism: style features

In appearance buildings signs classical style easy to know:

• clear spatial solutions,
• strict forms,
• laconic exterior finish,
• soft colors.

If the Baroque masters preferred to work with three-dimensional illusions, which often distorted the proportions, then clear perspectives dominated here. Even park ensembles of this era were performed in a regular style, when lawns had correct form, and shrubs and ponds were located in straight lines.

• One of the main features of classicism in architecture is the appeal to the ancient order system.

Translated from Latin, ordo means "order, order", the term was applied to the proportions of ancient temples between the bearing and carried parts: columns and entablature (upper ceiling).

Three orders came to the classics from Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. They differed in the ratio and size of the base, capitals, frieze. The Tuscan and composite orders were inherited from the Romans.

Elements of classical architecture

• The order has become the leading feature of classicism in architecture. But if in the Renaissance the ancient order and portico played the role of a simple stylistic decoration, now they have again become a constructive basis, as in ancient Greek construction.
• Symmetrical composition - required element classics in architecture, closely associated with the order. Completed projects of private houses and public buildings were symmetrical about the central axis, the same symmetry was traced in each individual fragment.
• The golden section rule (an exemplary ratio of height and width) determined the harmonious proportions of buildings.
• Leading decor techniques: decorations in the form of bas-reliefs with medallions, stucco floral ornaments, arched openings, window cornices, Greek statues on the roofs. To highlight white decorative elements, color scheme for decoration was chosen in light pastel shades.
• Among the features classical architecture- decoration of the walls according to the principle of order division into three horizontal parts: the lower one is the plinth, in the middle is the main field, at the top is the entablature. Cornices above each floor, window friezes, architraves different shapes, as well as vertical pilasters, created a picturesque relief of the facade.
• The design of the main entrance included marble staircases, colonnades, pediments with bas-reliefs.

Types of classical architecture: national features

Ancient canons, revived in the era of classicism, were perceived as the highest ideal of beauty and rationality of all things. Therefore, the new aesthetics of rigor and symmetry, pushing aside baroque pomposity, has widely penetrated not only into the sphere of private housing construction, but also into the scale of the whole urban planning. European architects were pioneers in this respect.

English classicism

The work of Palladio strongly influenced the principles of classical architecture in Great Britain, in particular in the works of the outstanding English master Inigo Jones. In the first third of the 17th century, he created the Queen's House ("Queen's House"), where he applied order divisions and balanced proportions. The construction of the first square in the capital, carried out according to regular plan, - Covent Garden.

Another English architect Christopher Wren went down in history as the creator of St. Paul's Cathedral, where he applied a symmetrical order composition with a two-tiered portico, two side towers and a dome.

During the construction of urban and suburban private apartments, English classicism in architecture brought into fashion Palladian mansions - compact three-story buildings with simple and clear forms.

The first floor was trimmed with rusticated stone, the second floor was considered the main one - it was combined with the upper (residential) floor using a large facade order.

Features of classicism in the architecture of France

The heyday of the first period french classics fell in the second half of the 17th century during the reign of Louis the Fourteenth. The ideas of absolutism as a reasonable state organization manifested themselves in architecture with rational order compositions and the transformation of the surrounding landscape according to the principles of geometry.

Most significant events this time - the construction of the eastern facade of the Louvre with a huge two-story gallery and the creation of an architectural and park ensemble in Versailles.

In the 18th century, the development of French architecture passed under the sign of Rococo, but already in the middle of the century its pretentious forms gave way to strict and simple classics in both urban and private architecture. Medieval buildings are replaced by a plan that takes into account the tasks of infrastructure, the placement of industrial buildings. Residential buildings are built on the principle of multi-storey buildings.

The order is perceived not as a decoration of the building, but as a structural unit: if the column does not carry a load, it is superfluous. exemplary architectural features Classicism in France of this period is the Church of St. Genevieve (Pantheon) designed by Jacques Germain Souflo. Its composition is logical, the parts and the whole are balanced, the drawing of the lines of the beads is clear. The master sought to accurately reproduce the details of ancient art.

Russian classicism in architecture

The development of the classical architectural style in Russia fell on the reign of Catherine II. IN early years elements of antiquity are still mixed with the baroque decor, but push them into the background. In the projects of Zh.B. Wallen-Delamot, A.F. Kokorinov and Yu. M. Felten, baroque chic gives way to the dominant role of the logic of the Greek order.

A feature of the classics Russian architecture late (strict) period was the final departure from the legacy of the baroque. This direction was formed by 1780 and is represented by the works of C. Cameron, V. I. Bazhenov, I. E. Starov, D. Quarenghi.

The rapidly developing economy of the country contributed to the rapid change of styles. Domestic and foreign trade expanded, academies and institutes, industrial shops were opened. There was a need for the rapid construction of new buildings: guest houses, fairgrounds, stock exchanges, banks, hospitals, boarding houses, libraries.

Under these conditions, deliberately lush and complex shapes The baroque style revealed its shortcomings: the long duration of construction work, the high cost and the need to attract an impressive staff of skilled craftsmen.

Classicism in Russian architecture, with its logical and simple compositional and decorating solutions, was a successful response to the economic needs of the era.

Examples of domestic architectural classics

Tauride Palace - project by I.E. Starov, implemented in the 1780s, - bright pattern trends of classicism in architecture. The modest facade is made with clear monumental forms, the Tuscan portico of strict design attracts attention.

A great contribution to the architecture of both capitals was made by V.I. Bazhenov, who created the Pashkov House in Moscow (1784-1786) and the project of the Mikhailovsky Castle (1797-1800) in St. Petersburg.

The Alexander Palace of D. Quarenghi (1792-1796) attracted the attention of contemporaries with a combination of walls, almost devoid of decor, and a majestic colonnade, made in two rows.

Naval Cadet Corps (1796-1798) F.I. Volkov is an example of the exemplary construction of barrack-type buildings according to the principles of classicism.

Architectural features of the classics of the late period

The stage of transition from the style of classicism in architecture to the Empire style is called the Alexandrov stage after the name of Emperor Alexander I. The projects created in the period of 1800-1812 have characteristic features:

• accentuated antique styling
• monumentality of images
• dominance Doric order(no extra embellishments)

Outstanding projects of this time:

• architectural composition of the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island by Tom de Thomon with the Stock Exchange and Rostral columns,
• Mining Institute on the Neva Embankment A. Voronikhin,
• the building of the Main Admiralty A. Zakharov.

Classics in modern architecture

The era of classicism is called the golden age of estates. Russian nobility actively engaged in the construction of new estates and alteration of outdated mansions. Moreover, the changes affected not only buildings, but also the landscape, embodying the ideas of the theorists of landscape gardening art.

In this regard, modern classical architectural forms, as the embodiment of the heritage of ancestors, are strongly associated with symbolism: this is not only a stylistic appeal to antiquity, with emphasized splendor and solemnity, a set of decorative techniques, but also a sign of high social status the owner of the mansion.

Modern designs of classic houses - a subtle combination of tradition with current construction and design solutions.

Classicism as an art style

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1. Characteristics of classicism as a trend in art

Classicism Ї artistic direction in art and Literature XVIIЇ beginning of the XIX century. In many ways, he opposed the baroque with its passion, volatility, inconsistency, asserting his principles.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with those in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, "should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself" . Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

Classicism appeared in France. Two stages can be distinguished in the formation and development of this style. The first stage refers to XVII century. For the classics of this period, unsurpassed examples artistic creativity were works of ancient art, where the ideal was order, reasonableness, harmony. In their works, they sought beauty and truth, clarity, harmony, and completeness of construction. Second stage, 18th century. It entered the history of European culture as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. Man attached great importance knowledge and believed in the ability to explain the world. The main character is a person who is ready for heroic deeds, subordinating their interests to the general, spiritual impulses - to the voice of reason. It distinguishes moral fortitude, courage, truthfulness, fidelity to duty. The rational aesthetics of classicism is reflected in all forms of art.

The architecture of this period is characterized by orderliness, functionality, proportionality of parts, a tendency to balance and symmetry, clarity of ideas and constructions, and strict organization. From this point of view, the symbol of classicism is the geometric layout of the royal park at Versailles, where trees, shrubs, sculptures and fountains were located according to the laws of symmetry. The standard of Russian strict classics was the Tauride Palace, built by I. Starov.

In painting, the logical unfolding of the plot, a clear balanced composition, a clear transfer of volume, the subordinate role of color with the help of chiaroscuro, the use of local colors (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, J. David) have acquired the main importance.

In poetic art, there was a division into "high" (tragedy, ode, epic) and "low" (comedy, fable, satire) genres. Prominent Representatives French literature P. Corneille, F. Racine, J.B. Moliere had a great influence on the formation of classicism in other countries.

An important moment of this period was the creation of various academies: sciences, painting, sculpture, architecture, inscriptions, music and dance.

The art style classicism (from Latin classicus Ї "exemplary") arose in XVII century in France. Based on the ideas of regularity, the rationality of the world order, the masters of this style “sought for clear and strict forms, harmonious patterns, the embodiment of high moral ideals» . They considered the works of ancient art to be the highest, unsurpassed examples of artistic creativity, therefore they developed ancient plots and images. Classicism in many respects opposed the Baroque with its passion, variability, inconsistency, asserting its principles in different types arts, including music. In 18th century opera classicism is represented by the works of Christoph Willibald Gluck, who created a new interpretation of this type of musical and dramatic art. pinnacle of development musical classicism was the work of Joseph Haydn,

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven, who worked mainly in Vienna and formed a direction in musical culture second half of XVIIIЇ start 19th centuryЇ the Viennese classical scale. Classicism in music is in many ways different from classicism in literature, theater or painting. In music it is impossible to rely on ancient traditions - they are almost unknown. In addition, the content musical compositions often associated with the world of human feelings, which are not amenable to strict control of the mind. However, the composers of the Viennese school created a very harmonious and logical system of rules for constructing a work. Thanks to this system, the most complicated feelings clothed in a clear and perfect form. Suffering and joy became for the composer a subject of reflection, not experience. And if in other types of art the laws of classicism are already in early XIX V. seemed outdated to many, then in music the system of genres, forms and rules of harmony, developed Viennese school, retains its value to this day.

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