By the nature of the creations, one can single out the culture represented in single samples And popular culture. The first form, according to the characteristic features of the creators, is divided into folk and elite culture. folk culture is a single work of most often anonymous authors. This form of culture includes myths, legends, tales, epics, songs, dances, and so on. Elite culture- a set of individual creations that are created by well-known representatives of the privileged part of society or by its order by professional creators. Here we are talking about creators who have a high level of education and are well known to an enlightened public. This culture includes fine arts, literature, classical music, etc.

Mass (public) culture represents products of spiritual production in the field of art, created in large editions, counting on the general public. The main thing for her is the entertainment of the widest masses of the population. It is understandable and accessible to all ages, all segments of the population, regardless of the level of education. Its main feature is the simplicity of ideas and images: texts, movements, sounds, etc. Samples of this culture are aimed at the emotional sphere of a person. Wherein Mass culture often uses simplified examples of elite and folk culture ("remixes"). Mass culture averages the spiritual development of people.

Subculture- this is the culture of any social group: confessional, professional, corporate, etc. It, as a rule, does not deny the universal culture, but has specific features. Signs of a subculture are special rules of behavior, language, symbols. Each society has its own set of subcultures: youth, professional, ethnic, religious, dissident, etc.

Dominant culture- values, traditions, views, etc., shared only by a part of society. But this part has the ability to impose them on the whole of society, either because it constitutes the ethnic majority, or because it has a mechanism of coercion. A subculture that opposes the dominant culture is called a counterculture. social basis countercultures are people, to some extent alienated from the rest of society. The study of the counterculture makes it possible to understand the cultural dynamics, the formation and spread of new values.

The tendency to evaluate the culture of one's nation as good and correct, and another culture as strange and even immoral has been called "ethnocentrism". Many societies are ethnocentric. From the point of view of psychology, this phenomenon acts as a factor in the unity and stability of this society. However, ethnocentrism can be a source of intercultural conflicts. The extreme forms of manifestation of ethnocentrism are nationalism. The opposite is cultural relativism.

Elite culture

Elite, or high culture created by a privileged part, or by its order by professional creators. It includes fine arts, classical music and literature. High culture, such as the painting of Picasso or the music of Schnittke, is difficult for an unprepared person to understand. As a rule, it is decades ahead of the level of perception of an averagely educated person. The circle of its consumers is a highly educated part of society: critics, literary critics, frequenters of museums and exhibitions, theater-goers, artists, writers, musicians. When the level of education of the population grows, the circle of consumers of high culture expands. Its varieties include secular art and salon music. The formula of elite culture is “ art for art”.

Elite culture It is intended for a narrow circle of highly educated public and opposes both folk and mass culture. It is usually incomprehensible to the general public and requires good preparation for correct perception.

TO elite culture avant-garde trends in music, painting, cinema, complex literature of a philosophical nature can be attributed. Often the creators of such a culture are perceived as inhabitants of the "ivory tower", fenced off by their art from real everyday life. As a rule, elite culture is non-commercial, although sometimes it can be financially successful and move into the category of mass culture.

Modern trends are such that mass culture penetrates into all areas of "high culture", mixing with it. At the same time, mass culture reduces the overall cultural level its consumers, but at the same time itself gradually rises to a higher cultural level. Unfortunately, the first process is still much more intense than the second.

folk culture

folk culture is recognized as a special form of culture. In contrast to the elite culture of the people, culture is created by anonymous creators who do not have professional training. The authors of folk creations are unknown. Folk culture is called amateur (not by level, but by origin) or collective. It includes myths, legends, tales, epics, fairy tales, songs and dances. In terms of execution, elements of folk culture can be individual (retelling of a legend), group (performing a dance or song), mass (carnival processions). Folklore is another name for folk art, which is created by various segments of the population. Folklore is localized, that is, associated with the traditions of the given area, and democratic, since everyone is involved in its creation. To contemporary manifestations folk culture include anecdotes, urban legends.

Mass culture

Mass or public does not express the refined tastes of the aristocracy or the spiritual quest of the people. The time of its appearance is the middle of the 20th century, when mass media(radio, print, television, records, tape recorders, video) penetrated into most countries of the world and became available to representatives of all social strata. Mass culture can be international and national. Popular and pop music is a vivid example of mass culture. It is understandable and accessible to all ages, all segments of the population, regardless of the level of education.

Popular culture is usually less artistic value than elitist or popular culture. But it has the widest audience. It satisfies the momentary needs of people, reacts to any new event and reflects it. Therefore, samples of mass culture, in particular hits, quickly lose their relevance, become obsolete, go out of fashion. This does not happen with works of elite and folk culture. pop culture is a slang term for mass culture, and kitsch is a variation of it.

Subculture

The set of values, beliefs, traditions and customs that guide the majority of members of society is called dominant culture. Since society breaks up into many groups (national, demographic, social, professional), each of them gradually forms its own culture, i.e., a system of values ​​and rules of conduct. Small cultures are called subcultures.

Subculture- Part common culture, a system of values, traditions, customs inherent in a certain. They talk about the youth subculture, the subculture of the elderly, the subculture of national minorities, the professional subculture, the criminal subculture. The subculture differs from the dominant culture in language, outlook on life, behavior, hair, dress, customs. The differences can be very strong, but the subculture does not oppose the dominant culture. Drug addicts, the deaf and dumb, the homeless, alcoholics, athletes, and the lonely have their own culture. The children of the aristocrats or the middle class are very different in their behavior from the children of the lower class. They read different books, go to different schools, follow different ideals. Each generation and social group has its own cultural world.

Counterculture

Counterculture denotes a subculture that is not only different from the dominant culture, but opposes, is in conflict with the dominant values. The terrorist subculture opposes human culture, and the hippie youth movement in the 1960s. denied the dominant American values: hard work, material success, conformity, sexual restraint, political loyalty, rationalism.

Culture in Russia

The state of the spiritual life of modern Russia can be characterized as a transition from defending the values ​​associated with attempts to build a communist society, to the search for a new meaning. community development. We have reached the next round of the historical dispute between Westernizers and Slavophiles.

The Russian Federation is a multinational country. Its development is due to the peculiarities of national cultures. The uniqueness of the spiritual life of Russia lies in the diversity of cultural traditions, religious beliefs, moral norms, aesthetic tastes, etc., which is associated with the specifics cultural heritage different peoples.

At present, in the spiritual life of our country, there are conflicting trends. On the one hand, the mutual penetration of different cultures contributes to interethnic understanding and cooperation, on the other hand, the development of national cultures is accompanied by interethnic conflicts. The latter circumstance requires a balanced, tolerant attitude towards the culture of other communities.

In ordinary consciousness, "culture" appears as collective image, which unites art, religion, science, etc. Culturology uses the concept of culture, which reveals the essence of human existence as the realization of creativity and freedom. It is culture that distinguishes man from all other beings.

Of course, here it is necessary to distinguish, firstly, freedom as an inalienable spiritual potential of a person and, secondly, awareness and conscious social realization of freedom.

Without the first, culture simply cannot appear, but the second is achieved only at relatively late stages of its development. Further, when we speak of culture, we mean not some separate creative act of a person, but creativity as a universal relation of a person to the world.

The concept of culture denotes the universal relation of man to the world, through which man creates the world and himself. Each culture is a unique universe, created by a certain attitude of a person to the world and to himself. In other words, by studying different cultures, we study not just books, cathedrals or archaeological finds - we discover other human worlds in which people lived and felt differently than we do. Each culture is a way of creative self-realization of a person. Therefore, the comprehension of other cultures enriches us not only with new knowledge, but also with new creative experience.

So far, however, we have taken only the first step towards a correct understanding and definition of culture. How is the universal relation of man to the world realized? How is it fixed in human experience and transmitted from generation to generation? To answer these questions means to characterize culture as a subject of cultural studies.

Man's relation to the world is determined by meaning. Meaning correlates any phenomenon, any object with a person: if something is devoid of meaning, it ceases to exist for a person. What is the meaning for cultural studies? Meaning is the content of human existence (including inner existence), taken in a special role: to be an intermediary in the relationship of man with the world and with himself. It is meaning that determines what we seek and discover in the world and in ourselves.

Meaning must be distinguished from meaning, i.e., an objectively expressed image or concept. Even if the meaning is expressed in an image or concept, in itself it is not necessarily objective at all. For example, one of the most important meanings - the thirst for love - does not at all imply an objective image of any person (otherwise, each of us would have known in advance whom he would love). The true meaning is addressed not only to the mind, but also to the uncontrolled depths of the soul and directly (besides our awareness) affects our feelings and will. The meaning is not always realized by a person, and not every meaning can be expressed rationally: most of the meanings are hidden in the unconscious depths of the human soul. But even those other meanings can become universally significant, uniting many people and acting as the basis of their thoughts and feelings. It is these meanings that form the culture.

Man endows the whole world with these meanings, and the world appears to him in its universal human significance. And the other world is simply not needed and uninteresting for a person. ON THE. Meshcheryakova rightly distinguishes two initial (basic) types of value attitude - the world can act for a person as "one's own" and as "alien". Culture is a universal way in which a person makes the world “his own”, turning it into the House of human (meaningful) being. Thus, the whole world turns into a carrier of human meanings, into the world of culture. Even the starry sky or the depths of the ocean belong to culture, since a particle of the human soul has been given to them, since they carry human sense. If this meaning did not exist, then a person would not stare at the night sky, poets would not write poetry, and scientists would not give all the strength of their souls to the study of nature and, therefore, would not make great discoveries. Theoretical thought is not born immediately, and in order for it to appear, a person’s interest in the mysteries of the world is needed, surprise in front of the mysteries of being (it’s not for nothing that Plato said that knowledge begins with surprise). But there is no interest and surprise where there are no cultural meanings that direct the minds and feelings of many people to master the world and their own souls.

This is where the definition of culture comes from. Culture is a universal way of creative self-realization of a person through the positing of meaning, the desire to reveal and affirm the meaning of human life in its correlation with the meaning of existence.

There can be many criteria, or grounds, for the typology of cultures, for example: connection with religion; regional affiliation of culture; regional and ethnic features; belonging to the historical type of society; economic structure; sphere of society or type of activity; connection with the territory; specialization; level of skill and type of audience, etc.

When talking about artistic, economic or political cultures, experts call them either varieties of the culture of the society, or spheres of the culture of the society. Let us briefly consider the main varieties (spheres) of culture.

In cultural studies, there is no consensus on what to consider as types, forms, types, branches of culture; as one of the options, the following conceptual scheme can be proposed.

Branches of culture should be called such sets of norms, rules and models of people's behavior that constitute a relatively closed area as part of the whole.

Types of culture should be called such sets of norms, rules and models of human behavior that constitute relatively closed areas, but are not parts of a single whole.

Any national or ethnic culture we are obliged to classify as cultural types. The types of culture should include not only regional-ethnic formations, but also historical and economic ones.

Forms of culture refer to such sets of rules, norms and models of human behavior that cannot be considered completely autonomous entities; neither are they constituent parts of any whole. High or elite culture, folk culture and popular culture are called forms of culture because they are a particular way of expressing artistic content.

Types of culture we will call such sets of rules, norms and behaviors that are varieties of a more general culture. We will refer to the main types of culture:

• a) the dominant (nationwide) culture, subculture and counterculture;
• b) rural and urban cultures;
• c) ordinary and specialized culture.

Spiritual and material culture require special discussion. They cannot be attributed to branches, forms, types or types of culture, since these phenomena combine all four classification features to varying degrees. It is more correct to consider spiritual and material culture as combined, or complex, formations, standing aside from the general conceptual scheme.

Artistic culture is a kind of spiritual culture, and physical culture is a kind of material culture.

TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES, classification of various types and forms of local and world religions, as based on several criteria:

connection with religion (religious and secular cultures);

regional affiliation of culture (cultures of East and West, Mediterranean, Latin American);

regional and ethnic features (Russian, French);

belonging to the historical type of society (the culture of a traditional, industrial, post-industrial society);

economic structure (culture of hunters and gatherers, gardeners, farmers, cattle breeders, industrial culture);

sphere of society or type of activity (production culture, political, economic, pedagogical, environmental, artistic, etc.);

connection with the territory (rural and urban culture);

specialization (ordinary and specialized culture);

ethnicity (folk, national, ethnic culture);

level of skill and type of audience (high, or elite, folk, mass culture), etc.

Branches of culture should be called such sets of norms, rules and models of people's behavior that constitute a relatively closed area as part of the whole. Economic, political, professional and other activities of people give grounds to single them out as independent branches of culture. Thus, political, professional or pedagogical culture are branches of culture, just as in industry there are such branches as the automobile industry, machine tool building, heavy and light industries, the chemical industry, and so on. Types of culture should be called such sets of norms, rules and models of human behavior that constitute relatively closed areas, but are not parts of a single whole. For example, Chinese or Russian culture are such original and self-sufficient phenomena that do not belong to a really existing whole. In relation to them, only the culture of all mankind can play the role of the whole, but it is more a metaphor than a real phenomenon, since next to the culture of mankind we cannot put the culture of other living beings and compare with it. Any national or ethnic culture we are obliged to classify as cultural types. The term "type" suggests that national cultures - Russian, French or Chinese - we can compare and find typical features in them. The types of culture should include not only regional-ethnic formations, but also historical and economic ones. In this case, Latin American culture, the culture of a post-industrial society, or the culture of hunters and gatherers should be referred to as cultural types.

Forms of culture refer to such sets of rules, norms and models of human behavior that cannot be considered completely autonomous entities; neither are they constituent parts of a whole. High or elite culture, folk culture and mass culture are called forms of culture because they are a special way of expressing artistic content. High, folk and mass culture differ in a set of techniques and visual means of a work of art, authorship, audience, means of conveying artistic ideas to the audience, and the level of performing skills. Types of culture we will call such sets of rules, norms and behaviors that are varieties of a more general culture. For example, a subculture is a kind of dominant (nationwide) culture that belongs to a large social group and is distinguished by some originality. For example, a youth subculture was created by an age group of people from 13 to 19 years old. They are also called teenagers. The youth subculture does not exist in isolation from the national one, it constantly interacts and is fed by it. The same can be said about the counterculture. This name is called a special subculture, antagonistic towards the dominant culture. We will refer to the main types of culture: a) the dominant (national) culture, subculture and counterculture; b) rural and urban cultures; c) ordinary and specialized culture. Spiritual and material culture cannot be attributed to branches, forms, types or types of culture, since these phenomena combine all four classification features to varying degrees. It is more correct to consider spiritual and material culture as combined or complex formations, standing aside from the general conceptual scheme. They can be called cross-cutting phenomena penetrating branches, types, forms, and types of culture. Artistic culture is a kind of spiritual culture, and physical culture is a kind of material culture.

The sociocultural world appears before researchers in all its heterogeneity and multiplicity. For the most complete and fruitful study of the phenomenon of culture, the method of classification, or typology, is used. The typology of culture solves the problems of orderly description and explanation of a heterogeneous set of cultural objects. Typology of culture is a method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the division of sociocultural systems and objects and their grouping using a generalized idealized model or type; the result of a typological description and comparison. At the same time, in the scientific community, as more or less equal, there are various grounds for the typology of culture. The grounds are certain sets of indicators, which include significant characteristics of the crops under study in accordance with the tasks set.

The prerogative of the researcher is to choose the basis for the typology, and there may be several such reasons, as will be shown below. Modern cultural knowledge is represented by various typologies, classifications of cultures. This does not mean that some of them are more correct than others. The point is that the research tasks themselves dictate the necessary set of indicators, which serve as the basis for a particular typology of culture. "In today's cognitive paradigm, research intentions are seen as a significant factor influencing the entire course of scientific work, including the data obtained and their interpretation. Therefore, it is impossible to "objectively" classify cultures "in themselves" as they "really"1.

Forms of culture refer to such sets of rules, norms and models of human behavior that cannot be considered completely autonomous entities; neither are they constituent parts of a whole. The term "symbolic form" was introduced by E. Cassirer, a representative of the Marburg school of neo-Kantianism, to designate the "world of culture", which consists of language, science, art, religion, and myths. He believed that cultural forms are "not different ways in which the one being-in-itself real reveals itself to the spirit, and the paths that the spirit follows in its objectification, that is, in its self-expression. "In most modern societies, culture exists in the following main forms:

1) high or elite culture - art facts (samples of visual arts, classical music and literature, moral insults and scientific standards) created for and consumed by the elite;

2) folk culture - folklore, is a different form of syncretism of utilitarian-magical moral and aesthetic activity (tales, songs, customs)

3) mass culture - culture that has developed in the process of development of the mass media, replicated for the masses and consumed by the masses.

Types of culture we will refer to such collections of rules, norms, and behaviors that are varieties of a more general culture. For example, a subculture is a kind of dominant (nationwide) culture that belongs to a large social group and is distinguished by some originality. For example, a youth subculture was created by an age group of people from 13 to 19 years old.

they are also called teenagers. The youth subculture does not exist in isolation from the national one, it constantly interacts and is fed by it. The same can be said about the counterculture. Such a name is given to a particular subculture that is antagonistic to the dominant culture. We will refer to the main types of culture: the dominant (national) culture, subculture and counterculture.

Types of culture it is necessary to name such sets of norms, rules and models of human behavior that constitute relatively closed areas, but are not parts of one whole. For example, Chinese or Russian culture are such original and self-sufficient phenomena that do not belong to a really existing whole. With regard to them, only the culture of all mankind can play the role of the whole, but it is only a universal education that is more a metaphor than a real phenomenon. Any national or ethnic culture we must attribute to cultural types. The term "type" suggests that national cultures - Ukrainian, French or Chinese - we can compare and find typical features in them. The types of culture should include not only regional-ethnic formations, but also historical and economic ones. In this case, Latin American culture, the culture of a post-industrial society, or the culture of hunters and gatherers should be referred to as cultural types.

The typology of cultures is based on several criteria:

connection with religion(religious and secular cultures)

regional affiliation of culture(cultures of East and West, Mediterranean, Latin American)

regional-ethnic feature(Russian, French);

belonging to a historical type of society(culture of traditional, industrial, post-industrial society);

economic system(culture of hunters and gatherers, gardeners, farmers, pastoralists, industrial culture);

area of ​​society or type of activity(production culture, political, economic, pedagogical, environmental, artistic, etc.);

connection with the territory(rural and urban culture);

specialization(everyday and specialized culture);

ethnicity(folk, national, ethnic culture);

skill level and audience type(high, or elite, folk, mass culture) etc.

In discussing types of culture, we will use the terms "simple" and "pre-literate" and "complex" and "literate" societies. Pre-literate means the absence of a written language and accordingly describes most pre-earthly societies. Agricultural Society refers to the historical, because writing already existed.

According to the economic system the following main types of culture are distinguished: the culture of hunters and gatherers, the culture of gardeners; pastoral culture; culture of farmers; industrial (industrial) culture. This classification is based on the method of obtaining means of subsistence. Such types of culture, which are based on the economic structure, have received the name of the economic-cultural type in the literature.

An economic and cultural type is a historically established complex of economic and cultural features characteristic of peoples living in certain natural and geographical conditions, at a certain level of their socio-economic development.

One of the economic and cultural types, for example, primitive hunters and gatherers, can be divided into a number of subtypes: the culture of hunters of the glacial zone, tropical hunters and gatherers, and gatherers of coastal coasts. In addition to subtypes, there are areas of economic and cultural system: hoe farmers and forest hunters, irrigated farmers and semi-nomadic cattle breeders, irrigated farmers of tropical valleys and land farmers of neighboring uplands, and the like.

Due to the fact that technological progress has constantly moved forward and the means of production have developed in accordance with it, the classification of types of economic culture has an evolutionary character.

The oldest type of economic culture is hunting and gathering. Primitive society consisted of local related groups (tribes). In terms of time, it was the longest - there were hundreds of thousands of years.

The early period is called the period of the human herd. He was replaced by cattle breeding (herding) and gardening (easier). Cattle breeding is based on the domestication (domestication) of wild animals. Cattle breeders led a nomadic lifestyle, while hunters and gatherers led a vagrant lifestyle. Cattle breeding gradually grew from hunting, when people became convinced that it was more cost-effective to tame animals than to kill them. Horticulture grew in harvesting, and out of it, agriculture. Thus, horticulture is a transitional form from the extraction of finished products (wild plants) to the systematic and intensive splicing of cultivated cereals. Small gardens subsequently gave way to large fields, primitive wooden hoes to a wooden, and later an iron plow.

Agriculture is associated with the birth of the state, cities, classes, writing - the necessary signs of civilization. They became possible due to the transition from a nomadic to a sedentary lifestyle.

Already early agriculture made it possible to produce more food than was necessary to sustain life in Sumer 3000 BC.

a man was given 36 kg of grain per month, and a woman - 18. Based on these norms, the Russian archaeologist V.M. Massoy calculated that 44 tons of grain are needed to feed a medium-sized (150-180 people) Sumerian village. To grow it, two adults from each family, even with primitive stone tools, have to work for only one month a year. The grain needed for the whole village in a year could be collected in just 10 days.

Labor productivity in irrigated agriculture in Mesopotamia in 3000 B.C. was twice as high as in Sumer. If the farmer needed 30 days to provide himself with food per year, then the rest of the time could be spent on the construction of temples and palaces.

In the primitive era, there was a so-called simple society (the term of anthropologists, denoting one level of government, the absence of economic inequality and social differentiation), in which hunters and gatherers lived, and then early farmers and pastoralists. Until now, in different regions of the vast planet, researchers are discovering living fragments of antiquity - primitive tribes wandering hunters and gatherers.

In science, it is customary to distinguish two types (two stages of development) of simple societies: local groups and primitive communities.

The second stage - the community - in turn is divided into two periods: a) tribal community, b) the neighboring community.

Local groups are small associations (from 20 to 60 people) of primitive gatherers and hunters related by blood, leading a wandering lifestyle.

Hunting and gathering belong to the so-called predatory or consumer economy: a person plucks plants without planting anything in return, kills animals without resuming their livestock through artificial breeding.

Itinerant hunters and gatherers were gradually replaced by sedentary gardeners and farmers who lived in communities. Kitchen gardens were arranged simply: part of the forest was uprooted, stumps were burned, and holes were dug with primitive digging sticks and tubers of wild vegetables were planted in them, which eventually turned into cultivated ones. Anthropologists sometimes refer to horticulture as farming, and gathering as foraging.

A community is a combination of people, at first or only connected by ties of consanguinity, and later also by mutual marriages, labor cooperation, mutual assistance, and general protection of the territory. Until the 20th century, similar communities existed in Russia, which were called land communities.

Although the number of primitive people did not exceed 5-6 million, but the consequence of the fact that the raw material base of one group was very large and became even larger as it was depleted natural resources, free space on Earth became less and less. The planet is overpopulated. There was a need for a transition to a new, more progressive way of managing. From collecting, society moved first to gardening, and then to agriculture.

By this time, technological progress had gone far ahead. The tools of labor became more complex, their productivity increased. So, one person could feed more people, why once.

The domestication of animals and the birth of shepherding gave mankind new source energy - draft cattle. The digging stick was replaced by an ox-drawn plow. Labor productivity has risen sharply. To feed one person by hunting and gathering, you need 2 square meters. km of area, and for agriculture, only 100 sq. m of land. The productivity of the land has grown 20 thousand times.

The transition to agriculture took a very long time. Much longer than the transition to machine technology. Specialists calculated that it lasted 3 thousand years. So much lasted the first world revolution - Neolithic.

The development of agriculture made it possible to use part of the crop for feeding livestock. But the more cattle the owner had, the more often he had to use the pasha and move around in search of pastures. Gradually, part of the tribes, especially where pastures were bad, began to specialize in cattle breeding.

The population grew, cities were created. Cities originated as centers where some segments of the population specialized in crafts and sold their products to other segments of the population who specialized in agriculture, trade or management.

An agrarian society is a multitude of cities and suburban areas united by economic exchange. Although many cities appeared in an agrarian society (in fact, they only appear under it), the bulk of the population lived in villages.

Industrial society was born in the 18th century. It is the child of two revolutions - economic and political. By economic is meant the great industrial revolution (her homeland is England). And under the political - the Great French Revolution (1789-1794).

For three centuries, the culture of European society has changed beyond recognition. Feudalism was replaced by capitalism. England was the flagship of industrialization. It was the birthplace of machine production, free enterprise and a new type of legislation.

Thanks to the advances in medicine, the improvement of sanitary conditions of life and the quality of nutrition, mortality is sharply reduced. Average duration life is growing. The population is also increasing. People are migrating from the countryside to the city with increasing desire - in search of a more comfortable life, culturally diverse leisure, better opportunities to get an education.

Two global processes led to the emergence of this type of society: industrialization and urbanization.

Urbanization - the relocation of people to cities and the spread of urban values ​​of life to all segments of the population - becomes an integral companion of another process - industrialization. Industrialization - the application of scientific knowledge to industrial technology, the discovery of new sources of energy that allow machines to do the work that was once done by people or draft animals. The transition to industry was as significant a revolution for mankind as the transition to agriculture was in its time. Thanks to this, a small part of the population was able to feed the majority of the population without resorting to cultivating the land. Today, 5% of the population is employed in agriculture in the United States, 10% in Germany, and 15% in Japan.

Industrialization requires more and more skilled workers as the complexity of the technology is constantly growing. In an industrial society, perhaps for the first time, the place of work is separated from the place of residence: unlike the artisan, the worker leaves his house every morning and goes by public transport to the other end of the city, where his factory is located.

Instead of several tens, at least hundreds of specialties pre-industrial society, there were tens of thousands of professions. Moreover, the speed with which the old professions were replaced by new ones has increased by tens and hundreds of times. And most of them were unknown to the agrarian society.

The transition from the culture of an industrial society to a post-industrial culture is accompanied by the transformation of a commodity economy into a service economy, which means the superiority of the service sector over the production sector. The decisive factor in development is the level of education and knowledge. Similar processes are observed in the USA and Japan, which are completing the transition from an industrial to a post-industrial society. But they are no different in Russia, which recently completed the transition from a pre-industrial society, where the majority of the population were peasants living in countryside, to industrial.

Technological progress has unrecognizably transformed human society. Today it enters the era of deserted production. Until the year 2000, the so-called "white-collar workers" - workers employed in automated production, scientific and applied development, as well as in the field of information - will amount to developed countries near

90% of the workforce. There is a special form of employment - home work. It sort of brings us back to the era when the place of work was inseparable from the place of residence. If this is a return, then at a qualitatively higher level. The current generation of "computer home workers", which already number many millions, press the keys of ultra-precise machines and operate with huge flows of information. At the same time, their productivity increases by 4 times. More and more often, foreign companies transfer their secretaries and clerks to home work. Employment in the field service reaches 70% in the USA, Japan and Germany.

In addition, other terms are used: "second industrial revolution", "third wave" (E. Toffler), "superindustrial society", "third industrial revolution", "cybernetic society". But more often the term is used Information society", which indicates that the modern society search, analysis and application of information have become the main factors of development. Society in the United States or Western Europe is called not only post-industrial, but also informational, since 60-80% of the workforce is directly or indirectly associated with the creation, processing and transmission of information.

Information is rapidly becoming more and more accessible through the development of technology. Personal computers, automatic word processing, cable television, video discs and video recording equipment are increasingly making their way into homes, schools and offices.

Every year information in the world doubles and triples, more and more new ones come out. information channels, and the most advanced is the Internet system - a computer web that has entangled the entire globe with invisible threads. Today, over the Internet, people from all over the world communicate in writing and visually, scientific conferences and demonstration operations are held. Thanks to the Internet, you can enter any library in the world, read any newspaper and find out the latest news.

During the existence of human society, the sources of energy that determine the speed of technological progress have changed dramatically. Simple society is the era of human muscles; agrarian society - the forces of animals; industrial - other energy sources of electricity, steam, wind, water; finally, post-industrial society- the era of atomic and thermonuclear energy.

From a scientific point of view, there are quite fruitful grounds for distinguishing types of cultures that have developed within the framework of ethnography(the science of the origin and ethnic history of peoples, the formation of the specific features of their culture at all levels of its manifestation).

The ancient Greeks used the word "ethnos" (people, tribe, flock, crowd, group of people) when they wanted to designate other peoples who are not Greeks. In Russian, the analogue of the term "ethnos" for a long time there was no concept of "people".

Before talking about ethnic groups and their culture, it is necessary to define what is meant by the word "ethnos". Translated from Greek, it has many meanings, including: a people, a tribe, a crowd, a group of people, pagans, a flock ... What unites all the meanings? The fact that they all have the meaning of a collection of creatures that are somewhat similar. Already by 5 tbsp. BC. two main meanings of this term are distinguished - "tribe" and "people", and gradually the second replaces the first. It would seem that everything is clear: an ethnos is a people. But in this case, why, until today, scientists have accumulated several hundred definitions of this concept and every year more and more new ones appear?

The very word "people" is often used as an antonym to the word "intelligentsia" or even serves as an everyday substitute for the word "guys / girls" ("Well, people, where are we going now?") "peoples of the world". But in this sense, one can speak of a nation, and of a nationality, and of tribes.

There are significant differences between all these concepts, which will be discussed below. The fact is that in the cultural aspect, the term "ethnos" is used in a narrow and broad sense. In a broad sense, "ethnos" is a collective concept that includes all types of ethnic communities (from a small tribe to a multi-million nation). Ethnic groups are the main units of the ethnic classification of mankind, next to which ethnic communities of greater or lesser complexity can be distinguished. Such an understanding assumes that each person belongs to a certain ethnic community and to a certain ethnic culture. And in the narrow sense of the word ethnos - this is one of the forms of an ethnic community, which, historically established in a certain territory, a stable intergenerational community of people with relatively stable features of culture, psyche and self-awareness of members, allow a certain ethnic group to distinguish itself from all ethnic formations.

However, the concept of “ethnos” was introduced into scientific circulation in 1923 by the Russian scientist S.M. different from others like her." With this understanding of the ethnos, the commonality of culture is taken into account: origin, way of life, traditions, language. Today, two approaches can be identified in the interpretation of this term: firstly, as a form of existence of the person himself and his culture, taking into account the influence natural factors(for example, in the concept of L. N. Gumilyov) secondly, as a historical and social system, suggesting its origin, development and change in structure. With this interpretation of the ethnos, its settlement may not coincide with the borders of states. Separate groups (diasporas) of Russians, Armenians, Jews, Poles, etc.; living outside their national statehood, belong to their ethnic group. The genesis of any ethnos involves significant tension in time. The formation of historical and cultural areas often occurs around certain elements of culture, such as language or religion. In this sense, we say: "Romance culture", "Islamic world", "Christian culture".

The difference between spiritual and material cultures cannot be attributed to branches, forms, types or types of culture, since these phenomena combine to varying degrees all four classification features. It is more correct to consider spiritual and material culture as combined or complex formations, standing aside from the general conceptual scheme. they can be called cross-cutting phenomena penetrating branches, types, forms, and types of culture.

material culture divided by:

Production and technological culture, constitutes the material results of material production and the methods of technological activity of a social person;

Reproduction of the human race, which includes the entire sphere of intimate relations between a man and a woman.

It should be noted that material culture is understood not so much as the creation objective world people, how many activities to shape the "conditions human existence". The essence of material culture is the embodiment of a variety of human needs, allowing people to adapt to the biological and social conditions of life.

The concept of spiritual culture:

Includes all areas of spiritual production (art, philosophy, science, etc.);

Shows the socio-political processes taking place in society (we are talking about power management structures, legal and moral norms, leadership styles, etc.).

The ancient Greeks formed the classical triad of the spiritual culture of mankind: truth - goodness - beauty. Accordingly, three most important value absolutes of human spirituality were identified:

Theoreticism, with a focus on truth and the creation of a special essential being, opposite to the ordinary phenomena of life;

Ethism, which subordinates to the moral content of life all other human aspirations;

Aestheticism, reaching the maximum fullness of life based on emotional and sensory experience.

Depending on the scale and forms of interaction of various subjects with the environment, forms and types of culture are distinguished. Sociologists distinguish primarily two special forms culture:

1) material- a set of objectified results of human activity, which includes both physical objects created as a result of human activity (houses, tools, books, food, clothing, jewelry, etc.) and natural objects used by people. The first are called artifacts . Artifacts always have a certain value for a person, a certain symbolic meaning, and perform certain functions.

2) spiritual- a set of results of activity, which includes intangible objects created by the mind and feelings of a person (speech, knowledge, traditions, myths, symbols, etc.) They exist in the human mind, are supported human interaction, but they cannot be touched, physically felt. Non-material objects require material intermediaries: knowledge is contained in books, the tradition of congratulations is embodied in a handshake.

Depending on who creates culture and what its level is, it is distinguished kinds.

So, common human culture is a culture produced by mankind throughout the history of its existence. It is based on universal human values ​​- truth, goodness, beauty, justice, etc. Within a separate society, the following forms of culture are distinguished as elite, folk and mass.

Elite culture - a collection of artifacts that, due to their sophistication, are mainly accessible to a narrow circle of people, the cultural elite.

The elite, or high, culture includes classical music, highly intellectual literature, refined art, that they are intended for highly educated people. An elite culture is created by high-class specialists.

folk culture (also called amateur, or folklore) is a primitive culture. It is created by amateur creators who do not have professional training, and is connected with the life of the broad masses of the people. It is represented by fairy tales, legends, myths, songs, dances, paintings. According to the form of manifestation, elements of folk culture can be individual, group, mass.

In modern society, under the influence of the media, another, so-called Mass culture that appeals to everyone and is designed for mass consumption. It is distributed by the media and appeared in the middle of the twentieth century, when the media became available to all segments of the population. Mass culture displaces both elite and popular culture. It is characterized by number of storeys, standardization, unification. She has less artistic value and enriches the personality spiritually much less than the elite or folk culture. Of course, there are exceptions.

Each society has a certain set of cultural models that are perceived by all members of society. Such a collection is called dominant culture.

At the same time, certain groups of society develop certain cultural complexes that are not perceived by all members of society, that is, they form their own culture, which differs from the dominant one and is called subculture. This is an independent holistic education within the dominant culture (values, norms, beliefs, patterns of behavior, etc.), modified in accordance with the age, professional, class, territorial and other characteristics of a particular social group, community. For example, ethnic or professional subculture, organizational subculture, etc. Professional culture is closely related to the content of professional activity, the role it plays in society, the organization of the workplace of representatives of this profession. She is greatly influenced professional education and preparation. Subcultures differ from the dominant culture in certain specific features that meet the conditions of the life of the community, group. The subculture retains the principles of the dominant culture, its scale of values, but additional elements arise, for example, norms that ensure the regulation of relations in the relevant social institutions - military, medical, educational, family subcultures.

There are subcultures that focus on specific features the life of their subjects: urban and rural subcultures, the subculture of the Hutsuls, Galicians, Polishchuks. Subcultures may arise based on different understanding ways of development of society, etc. The subculture is deviantculture. For example, the lifestyle and behavior of drug addicts, alcoholics, prostitutes, Satanists. Representatives of various subcultures are guided by different values, organize their leisure time in different ways, read different books, etc.

A subculture can be very different from the dominant culture of a society, but cannot oppose it. When this happens, it's about counterculture. There is a counterculture in every civilized society. An example of a counterculture can be subcultures of underworld groups, terrorists, various youth groups (punks, hippies, neo-fascists) that do not recognize the legal norms of society, ignore public morality, traditions, rules of conduct, actively deny the official, "state" culture and often try to destroy.

So, the composition of the culture of society includes a significant number of positive and negative subcultures, and this indicates its richness, dynamism, and the ability to adapt to new social conditions.

The task of sociology is to analyze the coexistence of all these types of cultures, to identify the contradictions between them, to study their perception by different social communities. Sociologists must know whether different cultures coexist peacefully, whether there are cultural conflicts- situations when the values ​​of one culture (counterculture or subculture) conflict with the values ​​of another (dominant). They are interested in what consequences the cultural conflict will have, whether it will contribute to positive changes in the dominant culture, the emergence of new, better models, constituent elements in it.

Scientists give the greatest importance to the study of national culture.

national culture - this is a set of symbols, values, norms, patterns of behavior, beliefs that characterize a particular community (ethnicity, nation) of a certain state, country. One national culture can exist only in a country where linguistic and ethnic unity reigns. Majority modern states have several or even many national cultures - subcultures of the national majority and subcultures of national minorities.

The task of sociology is to study the possible perversion of subcultures, the mechanism of state cultural policy.

As a rule, national minorities need to make a lot of efforts to preserve their identity, protect their national values ​​in an environment where the national majority lives, the culture of which exerts significant pressure on other cultures. Such a situation was observed in the former USSR, when the peoples that were part of it, in particular the Ukrainian people, found it very difficult to preserve their national heritage and their national culture.

The correct cultural policy of the government, the state has a significant impact on other aspects public life, for example, on the economy, general welfare and social tranquility in the state.

Of particular importance for the social tranquility of the state is confessional culture, which is formed on common beliefs, belonging to one denomination, church. This gives rise to a commonality of symbols, values, ideals and patterns of behavior.

The most common in the world are Christian, Muslim, Buddhist confessional cultures. Each of them has branches - subcultures. For example, Christian culture has such subcultures as Orthodox, Catholic, Protestant. In turn, these subcultures have their own subcultures.

There are several Christian and many other confessional subcultures in Ukraine. Unfortunately, not all of them find a common language with each other.

Sociology should study the correlation of dominant cultures, subcultures, countercultures, the contradictions between them, their assessment by various social groups. An important sociological problem is the property of ethnic self-consciousness to perceive and evaluate other cultures through the prism of their own standards. ethnic group, to make judgments about them from the standpoint of the superiority of their own culture. This phenomenon is called ethnocentrism.

According to an American sociologist W. Summer, for ethnocentrism, a certain group in society is considered central, and all others are sympathetic and correlate with it, as with some universal etelon.

To a certain extent, ethnocentrism is inherent in all societies and peoples, it unites them. Ethnocentrism is necessary condition emergence of national consciousness. Without ethnocentrism, patriotism is impossible.

However, there are also extreme manifestations ethnocentrism, for example nationalism, disregard for other cultures. These phenomena, unfortunately, are very common today and manifest themselves in the imposition of one's own system of values, one's way of life. A prime example of this are USA, Russia.

However, in general, ethnocentrism turns out to be in more loyal forms, and its main orientation is as follows: I prefer my customs, although I understand that certain customs of other cultures may be better in some way. The phenomena of ethnocentrism are observed everywhere and always when a person compares himself with people of a different gender, age, representatives of another organization or another region. Each time she puts herself at the center of culture and considers its other manifestations, constantly comparing them with samples of her cultural environment.

When it comes to the significant role of ethnocentrism in the process of rallying individuals around certain cultural models, its conservative role should also be noted. It can hinder the development of culture. Indeed, if culture is considered the best in the world, then why change or improve something in it?

The opposite in meaning is cultural relativism which proclaims the absolute originality of any culture. According to this principle whether a culture can only be understood in its own context and only when judged by its own standards in its entirety. This thesis was formulated
G. Sumner and subsequently developed G. Benedict.

In our opinion, one should proceed from the fact that any culture is an achievement of a common civilization, and it should be considered in the system of all cultures with a focus on the development trends of human culture. And this is a combination of rice ethnocentrism and cultural relativism in the perception of culture. For such an approach, the individual not only feels pride in the culture of his group or society, is a supporter of its basic models, but is also able to understand other cultures, the behavior of members of other community groups and recognizes their right to exist.

Types and types of culture

Taking the dominant values ​​as a basis, both material and spiritual culture, in turn, can be divided into the following kinds.

artistic culture, its essence lies in the aesthetic development of the world, the core is art, the dominant value is beauty .

Economic culture, this includes human activity in the economic sector, production culture, management culture, economic law, etc. Main value - work .

Legal culture is manifested in activities aimed at protecting human rights, relations between the individual and society, the state. Dominant value - law .

Political culture is associated with the active position of a person in the organization of government, individual social groups, with the functioning of individual political institutions. Main value - power .

Physical culture, i.e. a sphere of culture aimed at improving the bodily basis of a person. This includes sports, medicine, relevant traditions, norms, actions that form a healthy lifestyle. Main value - human health .

religious culture is associated with directed human activity to create a picture of the world based on irrational dogmas. It is accompanied by the administration of religious services, adherence to the norms set forth in the sacred texts, certain symbols, etc. The dominant value is faith in God and, on this basis, moral perfection .

Ecological culture is reasonable and caring attitude to nature, maintaining harmony between man and the environment. Main value - nature .

moral culture is manifested in the observance of special ethical standards arising from traditions, social attitudes that dominate human society. Main value - morality .

This is not a complete list of types of culture. In general, the complexity and versatility of the definition of the concept of "culture" determines the complexity of its classification. There is an economic approach (agriculture, the culture of livestock breeders, etc.), a social-class approach (proletarian, bourgeois, territorial-ethnic), (the culture of certain nationalities, the culture of Europe), spiritual and religious (Muslim, Christian), technocratic (pre-industrial, industrial) , civilizational (the culture of Roman civilization, the cultures of the East), social (urban, peasant), etc. Nevertheless, based on such numerous characteristics, several important directions, which formed the basis typologies of culture .

This is, first of all, ethnoterritorial typology. The culture of socio-ethnic communities includes ethnic , national, folk, regional culture. Their carriers are peoples, ethnic groups. Currently, there are about 200 states uniting over 4,000 ethnic groups. The development of their ethnic, national cultures is influenced by geographical, climatic, historical, religious and other factors. In other words, the development of cultures depends on the terrain, lifestyle, entry into a particular state, belonging to a particular religion.

Concepts ethnic And folk cultures are similar in content. Their authors, as a rule, are unknown, the subject is the whole nation. But these are highly artistic works that remain in the memory of the people for a long time. Myths, legends, epics, fairy tales are among the best works of art. Their most important feature is traditionalism.

Folk culture is of two types - popular And folklore. Popular common among the people, but its object is mainly modernity, life, way of life, customs, folklore same, more turned to the past. Ethnic culture is closer to folklore. But ethnic culture is, first of all, everyday culture. It includes not only art, but also tools, clothes, household items. Folk, ethnic cultures can merge with professional culture, that is, with the culture of specialists, when, for example, a work is created by a professional, but the author is gradually forgotten, and a monument of art becomes essentially a folk one. There may also be a reverse process, when, for example, in the Soviet Union, through cultural and educational institutions, they tried to cultivate ethnic culture by creating ethnographic ensembles and performing folk songs. Under certain conditions folk culture can be considered as a link between ethnic and national cultures.

Structure national culture is more difficult. It differs from ethnic more distinct national characteristics and wide range. It may include a number of ethnic groups. For example, the American national culture includes English, German, Mexican and many others. National culture arises when representatives of ethnic groups are aware of their belonging to a single nation. It is built on the basis of writing, while ethnic and folk can be unwritten.

Ethnic, national cultures may have their own common, distinct features, expressed in the concept of " mentality "(lat. way of thinking). It is customary, for example, to single out the English, restrained type of mentality, French - playful, Japanese - aesthetic, etc. But the national culture, along with traditional everyday, folklore, also includes specialized areas. The nation is characterized not only by ethnographic, but also social signs: territory, statehood, economic ties, etc. Accordingly, the national culture, in addition to ethnic, includes elements of economic, legal and other types of culture.

Co. second group can be attributed social types. This is, first of all, mass, elite, marginal culture, subculture and counterculture.

Bulk culture is commercial culture. This is a type of cultural production produced in large volumes, designed for a wide audience of low and medium levels of development. It is intended for the mass, i.e., the undifferentiated set. The mass is inclined towards consumer information.

Mass culture appeared in modern times with the invention of the printing press, the spread of low-grade tabloid literature, and it developed in the 20th century in the conditions of a capitalist society with its focus on market economy, the creation of a mass general education school and the transition to universal literacy, the development of the media. It acts as a commodity, uses advertising, oversimplified language, is available to everyone. In the field of culture, an industrial and commercial approach was applied, it became one of the forms of business. Mass culture focuses on artificially created images and stereotypes, "simplified versions of life", beautiful illusions.

The philosophical basis of mass culture is Freudianism, which reduces all social phenomena to biological ones, highlights instincts, pragmatism, which puts benefit as the main goal.

The term "popular culture"» first used in 1941 by a German philosopher M. Horkheimer . The Spanish thinker José Ortega y Gasset (1883 - 1955) tried to analyze the phenomenon of mass and elite cultures more broadly. In his work "The Revolt of the Masses", he came to the conclusion that European culture is in a state of crisis and the reason for this is the "revolt of the masses". Mass is average person. Ortega y Gasset opened background mass culture. This is, firstly, economic: the growth of material well-being and the relative availability of material goods. This changed the vision of the world, it began to be perceived, figuratively speaking, in the service of the masses. Secondly, legal: the division into estates disappeared, liberal legislation appeared, declaring equality before the law. This created certain prospects for the upliftment of the average man. Thirdly, it is observed rapid population growth. As a result, according to Ortega y Gasset, a new human type has matured - mediocrity incarnate. Fourth, cultural background . A person who is satisfied with himself has ceased to be critical of himself and reality, to engage in self-improvement, limited himself to craving for pleasure and entertainment.

The American scientist D. MacDonald, following Ortega y Gasset, defined mass culture as created for the market and "not quite a culture."

At the same time, mass culture also has a certain positive value, since it has a compensatory function, helps to adapt, maintain social stability in difficult socio-economic conditions, ensures the general accessibility of spiritual values, achievements of science and technology. Under certain conditions and quality individual works mass culture stand the test of time, rise to the level of highly artistic, gain recognition and eventually become, in a certain sense, popular.

As the antipode of the mass, many culturologists consider elite culture (French favorites, the best). This is the culture of a special, privileged stratum of society with its specific spiritual abilities, distinguished by creativity, experimentalism, and closeness. Elite culture is characterized by an intellectual-avant-garde orientation, complexity and originality, which makes it understandable mainly for the elite and inaccessible to the masses.

Elite (high) culture created by a privileged part of society, or by its order by professional creators. It includes fine arts, classical music and literature. High culture (for example, the painting of Picasso or the music of Schoenberg) is difficult for an unprepared person to understand. As a rule, it is decades ahead of the level of perception of an averagely educated person. The circle of its consumers is a highly educated part of society: critics, literary critics, frequenters of museums and exhibitions, theater-goers, artists, writers, musicians. When the level of education of the population grows, the circle of consumers of high culture expands. Its varieties include secular art and salon music. The formula of elite culture is "art for art's sake".

It has been known since antiquity, when priests, tribal leaders became the owners of special knowledge inaccessible to others. During feudalism similar relationships were reproduced in various denominations, knightly or monastic orders, capitalism- V intellectual circles, scientific communities, aristocratic salons, etc. True, in modern and recent times, elite culture was no longer always associated with rigid caste isolation. There are cases in history when gifted natures, people from the common people, for example, Zh.Zh. Russo, M.V. Lomonosov, passed hard way formation and joined the elite.

Elite culture is based on philosophy A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche who divided humanity into "people of geniuses" and "people of benefit", or into "supermen" and the masses. Later, thoughts about elite culture were developed in the works of Ortega y Gasset. He considered it the art of a gifted minority, a group of initiates capable of reading the symbols embedded in work of art. hallmarks Such a culture, according to Ortega y Gasset, is, firstly, the desire for "pure art", that is, the creation of works of art only for the sake of art, and secondly, the understanding of art as a game, and not a documentary reflection of reality.

Subculture(lat. subculture) is the culture of certain social groups that differs or even partially opposes the whole, but in general terms is consistent with the dominant culture. Most often it is a factor of self-expression, but in some cases it is a factor of unconscious protest against the dominant culture. In this regard, it can be divided into positive and negative. Elements of subculture appeared, for example, in the Middle Ages in the form of urban, chivalrous cultures. A subculture of the Cossacks and various religious sects has developed in Russia.

Subculture forms different - the culture of professional groups (theatrical, medical culture, etc.), territorial (urban, rural), ethnic (gypsy culture), religious (culture of sects that differ from world religions), criminal (thieves, drug addicts), adolescent youth. The latter most often serves as a means of unconscious protest against the rules established in society. Young people are prone to nihilism, more easily subject to the influence of external effects and paraphernalia. Culturologists as the first youth subcultural groups are called " teddy boy ”, which appeared in the middle of the 50s of the XX century in England.

Almost simultaneously with them, "modernists" or "fashions" arose.

By the end of the 50s, "rockers" began to appear, in which the motorcycle was a symbol of freedom and at the same time a means of intimidation.

By the end of the 60s, “skinheads” or “skinheads”, aggressive football fans. At the same time, in the 60s and 70s, the hippie and punk subcultures emerged in England.

All these groups are distinguished by aggressiveness, a negative attitude towards the traditions that dominate in society. They are characterized by their own symbolism, sign system. They create their image, first of all, their appearance: clothes, hairstyles, metal jewelry. They have their own manner of behavior: gait, facial expressions, communication features, their own special slang. There are traditions and folklore. Each generation learns the norms of behavior rooted in certain subgroups, moral values, folklore forms (sayings, legends) and after a short time no longer differs from their predecessors.

Under certain circumstances, especially aggressive subgroups, for example, hippies, can become in opposition to society, and their subculture can develop into counterculture. This term was first used in 1968 by the American sociologist T. Rozzak to assess the liberal behavior of the so-called "broken generation".

Counterculture- these are socio-cultural attitudes that oppose the dominant culture. It is characterized by the rejection of established social values, moral norms and ideals, the cult of the unconscious manifestation of natural passions and the mystical ecstasy of the soul. The counterculture aims to overthrow the dominant culture, which appears as organized violence against the individual. This protest takes various forms: from passive to extremist, which manifested itself in anarchism, "leftist" radicalism, religious mysticism, etc. A number of culturologists identify it with the movements of "hippies", "punks", "beatniks", which arose both as a subculture and as a culture of protest against the technocracy of an industrial society. Youth counterculture of the 70s in the West they called it a culture of protest, because it was during these years that young people especially sharply opposed the value system of the older generation. But it was at this time that the Canadian scientist E. Tiryakan considered in it a powerful catalyst for the cultural-historical process. Any new culture arises as a result of the awareness of the crisis of the previous culture.

To be distinguished from the counterculture marginal culture (lat. region). This is a concept that characterizes the value orientations of individual groups or individuals who, due to circumstances, found themselves on the verge of different cultures, but did not integrate into any of them.

The concept of " marginal personality ” was introduced in the 1920s by R. Park to indicate the cultural status of immigrants. Marginal culture is located on the "outskirts" of the respective cultural systems. An example is, for example, migrants, villagers in the city, forced to adapt to a new urban lifestyle for them. Culture can also acquire a marginal character as a result of conscious attitudes towards the rejection of socially approved goals or ways to achieve them.

3. A special place in the classification of culture is historical typology. There are a number of different approaches to solving this problem.

The most common of them in science are as follows.

This is the Stone, Bronze, Iron Ages, according to archaeological periodization; pagan, Christian periods, according to periodization, tending to the biblical scheme, as, for example, in G. Gezhel or S. Solovyov. Proponents of evolutionary theories of the XIX century distinguished three stages in the development of society: savagery, barbarism, civilization. The formational theory of K. Marx proceeded from the division of the world cultural and historical process into epochs: primitive communal system, slaveholding, feudalism, capitalism. According to "Eurocentric" concepts, the history of human society is divided into the Ancient World, Antiquity, the Middle Ages, Modern Times, Modern Times.

The presence of a variety of approaches to the definition historical typology culture allows us to conclude that there is no universal concept that explains the entire history of mankind and its culture. However, in last years the attention of researchers was especially attracted by the concept of the German philosopher Karl Jaspers(1883 - 1969). In the book "The Origins of History and Its Purpose" in the cultural-historical process, he highlights four main periods . First is the period of archaic culture or the “Promethean era”. The main thing at this time is the emergence of languages, the invention and use of tools and fire, the beginning of the socio-cultural regulation of life. Second the period is characterized as a pre-axial culture of ancient local civilizations. Arise high cultures in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, later in China, writing appears. Third stage is, according to Jaspers, a kind of " world time axis' and refers to VIII-II centuries BC. e. It was an era of undoubted success not only in material, but above all, in spiritual culture - in philosophy, literature, science, art, etc., the life and work of such great personalities as Homer, Buddha, Confucius. At this time, the foundations of world religions were laid, there was a transition from local civilizations to common history humanity. During this period, a modern person is being formed, the main categories by which we think have been developed.

Fourth the stage covers the time from the beginning of our era, when the era began scientific and technological progress, there is a rapprochement of nations and cultures, two main directions of cultural development are manifested: "Eastern" with its spirituality, irrationalism and "Western" dynamic, pragmatic. This time is designated as the universal culture of the West and East in the post-Axial period.

The typology of civilizations and cultures of the German scientist of the early 20th century is also interesting. Max Weber. He distinguished two types of societies and, accordingly, cultures. These are traditional societies where the principle of rationalization does not work. Those that are based on the basis of rationality, Weber called industrial. Rationalization, according to Weber, manifests itself when a person is driven not by feelings and natural needs, but by profit, the possibility of obtaining material or moral dividends. In contrast to him, the Russian-American philosopher P. Sorokin put spiritual values ​​as the basis for the periodization of culture. He singled out three types of cultures: ideational (religious-mystical), idealistic (philosophical) and sensual (scientific). In addition, Sorokin distinguished cultures according to the principle of organization (heterogeneous clusters, formations with similar sociocultural characteristics, organic systems).

Widely known at the beginning of the 20th century Social History School, which has the oldest, "classical" traditions and goes back to Kant, Hegel and Humboldt, grouping around itself mainly historians and philosophers, including religious ones. Its prominent representatives in Russia were N.Ya. Danilevsky, and in Western Europe - Spengler and Toynbee, who adhered to the concept of local civilizations.

Nikolay Yakovlevich Danilevsky(1822-1885) - publicist, sociologist and naturalist, one of the many Russian minds who anticipated the original ideas that arose later in the West. In particular, his views on culture are surprisingly consonant with the concepts of two of the most prominent thinkers of the twentieth century. - German O. Spengler and Englishman A. Toynbee.

The son of an honored general, Danilevsky, however, from a young age devoted himself to the natural sciences, and was also fond of the ideas of utopian socialism.

After receiving his Ph.D., he was arrested for participating in the revolutionary-democratic circle of Petrashevists (F.M. Dostoevsky also belonged to it), spent three months in the Peter and Paul Fortress, but managed to avoid trial and was expelled from St. Petersburg. Later, as a professional naturalist, botanist and fish conservation specialist, he served in the Department Agriculture; on scientific business trips and expeditions, he traveled a significant part of Russia, inspired by a great cultural work. Being the ideologist of Pan-Slavism, a trend that proclaimed the unity of the Slavic peoples, Danilevsky, long before O. Spengler, in his main work "Russia and Europe" (1869) substantiated the idea of ​​the existence of so-called cultural-historical types (civilizations), which, like living organisms, are in constant struggle with each other and with the environment. Just like biological individuals, they pass birth, rise and fall. The beginnings of a civilization of one historical type are not transmitted to peoples of another type, although they are subject to certain cultural influences. Each "cultural-historical type" manifests itself in four areas : religious, cultural, political and socio-economic. Their harmony speaks of the perfection of this or that civilization. The course of history is expressed in the change of cultural-historical types displacing each other, passing the way from the "ethnographic" state through statehood to the civilized level. Life cycle cultural-historical type consists of four periods and lasts about 1500 years, of which 1000 years is the preparatory, "ethnographic" period; about 400 years - the formation of statehood, and 50-100 years - the flowering of all the creative possibilities of a particular people. The cycle ends with a long period of decline and decay.

In our time, Danilevsky's idea that a necessary condition for the flourishing of culture is political independence is especially relevant. Without it, the originality of culture is impossible; culture itself is impossible, "which does not even deserve the name, if it is not original." On the other hand, independence is needed so that kindred cultures, say, Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, can freely and fruitfully develop and interact, while at the same time preserving the pan-Slavic cultural wealth. Denying the existence of a single world culture, Danilevsky singled out 10 cultural and historical types that have partially or completely exhausted the possibilities of their development:

1) Egyptian,

2) Chinese,

3) Assyro-Babylonian, Phoenician, Old Semitic

4) Indian,

5) Iranian

6) Jewish

7) Greek

8) Roman

9) Arabian

10) Germano-Romance, European

One of the latest, as we see, was the European Romano-Germanic cultural community.

Qualitatively new and having a great historical perspective, Danilevsky proclaims the Slavic cultural and historical type, designed to unite, led by Russia, all Slavic peoples in contrast to Europe, allegedly entered into a period of decline.

No matter how one relates to the views of Danilevsky, they still, as in their time, nourish and nourish the imperial ideology and prepared the emergence of such a modern social science as geopolitics, closely related to the civilizational approach to history.

Oswald Spengler(1880-1936) - German philosopher and cultural historian, author of the once sensational work "The Decline of Europe" (1921-1923). The creative biography of the German thinker is unusual. The son of a petty postal clerk, Spengler did not have a university education and could only finish high school where he studied mathematics and natural sciences; As for history, philosophy and art history, in the mastery of which he surpassed many of his outstanding contemporaries, Spengler dealt with them independently, becoming an example of a self-taught genius. Yes, and Spengler's service career was limited to the position of a gymnasium teacher, which he voluntarily left in 1911. For several years he imprisoned himself in a small apartment in Munich and set about fulfilling his cherished dream: he wrote a book about the fate of European culture in the context of world history - “The Decline of Europe ”, which withstood only in the 1920s 32 editions in many languages ​​and brought him the sensational fame of “the prophet of the death of Western civilization”.

Spengler repeated N.Ya. Danilevsky and, like him, was one of the most consistent critics of Eurocentrism and the theory of the continuous progress of mankind, considering Europe already a doomed and dying link. Spengler denies the existence of universal human continuity in culture. In the history of mankind, he distinguishes 8 cultures:

1) Egyptian,

2) Indian,

3) Babylonian,

4) Chinese,

5) Greco-Roman,

6) Byzantine-Islamic,

7) Western European

8) Mayan culture in Central America.

As a new culture, according to Spengler, Russian-Siberian culture is coming. Each cultural "organism" is measured for approximately 1000 years of existence. Dying, each culture degenerates into civilization, passes from creative impulse to barrenness, from development to stagnation, from "soul" to "intellect", from heroic "deeds" to utilitarian work. Such a transition for Greco-Roman culture occurred, according to Spengler, in the era of Hellenism (III-I centuries BC), and for Western European culture - in the 19th century. With the advent of civilization, mass culture, artistic and literary creativity loses its significance, giving way to spiritless technicalism and sports. In the 1920s, the "Decline of Europe", by analogy with the death of the Roman Empire, was perceived as a prediction of the apocalypse, the death of Western European society under the onslaught of new "barbarians" - revolutionary forces advancing from the East. History, as you know, has not confirmed Spengler's prophecies, and the new "Russian-Siberian" culture, which meant the so-called socialist society, has not yet happened. It is significant that some of Spengler's conservative-nationalist ideas were widely used by the ideologists of Nazi Germany.

Arnold Joseph Toynbee(1889-1975) - English historian and sociologist, author of the 12-volume "Study of History" (1934-1961) - a work in which he (at the first stage, not without the influence of O. Spengler) also sought to comprehend the development of mankind in the spirit of the cycle "civilizations", using this term as a synonym for "culture". A.J. Toynbee came from a middle-class English family; Following the example of his mother, a teacher of history, he graduated from the University of Oxford and the British Archaeological School in Athens (Greece). At first, he was fond of antiquity and the works of Spengler, whom he later surpassed as a cultural historian. From 1919 to 1955 Toynbee was a professor of Greek, Byzantine, and later world history at the University of London. During the years of the First and Second World Wars, he simultaneously collaborated with the Foreign Ministry, was a member of the British government delegations at the Paris Peace Conferences in 1919 and 1946, and also headed the Royal Institute of International Affairs. The scientist devoted a significant part of his life to writing his famous work - an encyclopedic panorama of the development of world culture.

Initially, Toynbee considered history as a set of parallel and sequentially developing "civilizations", genetically little connected with one another, each of which goes through the same stages from rise to breakdown, decay and death. Later, he revised these views, coming to the conclusion that all known cultures, fed by world religions (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, etc.), are branches of one human “tree of history”. They all tend towards unity, and each of them is its particle. World historical development appears as a movement from local cultural communities to a single universal culture. Unlike O. Spengler, who singled out only 8 "civilizations", Toynbee, who relied on wider and modern research, numbered them from 14 to 21., later settling on thirteen that have received the most complete development. driving forces history, in addition to the divine "providence", Toynbee considered individual outstanding personalities and "creative minority". It responds to the "challenges" thrown to this culture by the outside world and spiritual needs, as a result of which the progressive development of a particular society is ensured. At the same time, the “creative minority” leads the passive majority, relying on its support and replenishing at the expense of its the best representatives. When the “creative minority” is unable to realize their mystical “life impulse” and respond to the “challenges” of history, it turns into a “dominant elite” that imposes its power by force of arms, and not by authority; the alienated mass of the population becomes the “internal proletariat”, which, together with external enemies, ultimately destroys the given civilization, if it does not first perish from natural disasters.

According to Toynbee's Law of the Golden Mean, the challenge should be neither too weak nor too harsh. In the first case, no active response will follow, and in the second case, insurmountable difficulties can fundamentally stop the birth of civilization. Specific examples The "challenges" known from history are associated with the drying up or waterlogging of the soil, the onset of hostile tribes, and the forced change of residence. The most common answers are: the transition to a new type of management, the creation of irrigation systems, the formation of powerful power structures capable of mobilizing the energy of society, the creation of a new religion, science, and technology.

Such a variety of approaches makes it possible to study this phenomenon in more depth.