German literature of the 19th century general characteristics. German literature of the second half of the 19th century

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After the revolution of 1848, the unification of Germany, which had long been demanded common sense history - and all of Europe, and Germany itself - again not. took place. The adoption of a democratic constitution remained an unattainable demand of the day. At the first splashes social activity proletarians, the national bourgeoisie preferred conservative allegiance to their local monarchies and easily abandoned the revolutionary ideals that they harbored on the eve of 1830. The split in the camp of the liberal bourgeoisie into a national-conservative and republican wing, weakness, lack of will for real action, and, last but not least, the dissatisfaction of the lower classes, contributed to the fact that the revolution did not achieve the goals set by the liberal bourgeoisie - through freedom to the unity of Germany. History took a different path. And society after the revolution embraces the mood of defeat and ever greater hopelessness, which will determine the long years"The spirit of time".

At the same time, Germany received a noticeable impetus to faster industrial-capitalist development. There was a clear change from the political interests of the bourgeoisie to economic interests. The place of idealistically colored, democratic projects of social development, still connected with the ideas of the Enlightenment, is now occupied in her mind by the realistic and practical goal of her own economic enrichment. Quite quickly, nationalist interests and the idea of ​​national superiority are gaining strength. Germany, like other European countries, is becoming a colonial and imperialist state.

In the second half of the 19th century, Prussia noticeably advanced among other German states due to the vigorous development of industry and economy. The era of the so-called "real" policy of the "Iron Chancellor" O. von Bismarck (1815 - 1898) begins, who managed to unite Germany in 1871 "with iron and blood", that is, by the most cruel methods. The unification was preceded by wars with Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), France (1871).

All these events lead to a crisis of bourgeois consciousness, to a kind of loss of spiritual support. The consequence of this is confusion and a quick change of hobbies and mindsets.

The expanding influence of materialistic thought is closely connected with the economic rise of the bourgeoisie, and the general spread of positivism in science heralds and promises a new orientation of human consciousness, seeking justification in facts, in comparison with the period before 1848. However, neither accelerated economic development However, neither the materialization of consciousness nor positivist pragmatism not only stimulated spiritual life, but, on the contrary, impoverished it and testified to the spiritual exhaustion of social life, only deepening its crisis. It is no coincidence that materialistic and positivist ideas side by side in this era with various forms of irrationalism, with the cult of "vitality" and simply with superstitions and mysticism.

The socio-political depression in the society of the 1950s found its ideological reflection in the general enthusiasm for the pessimistic philosophy of Schopenhauer.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 - 1860), after the revolution of 1848, which did not bear the expected fruits, legitimized pessimism and depression in the best possible way, explaining them as inherent properties inherent in life itself and proving the doom of a person in a collision with life. Schopenhauer's main work, The World as Will and Representation, written in 1819, received its true recognition in the second half of the 19th century and had a great influence on the spiritual life not only in Germany, but throughout Europe, giving impetus to a reassessment of the values ​​of the entire century and marking the line demolition of his humanistic ideas.

According to Schopenhauer's view, the world does not develop, but moves in a circle, bringing endless repetition of the same. The principle that governs being is the blind, aimless, irrational will that plunges humanity into eternal struggle individuals, the struggle of all against all. Pessimism, renunciation of confronting the world, renunciation of life itself is the spiritual result of Schopenhauer's quest. Schopenhauer considered the only answer to the questions of existence to be the position of an artist-contemplator or an ascetic who has left the world, and in the long term - death.

Since the 1960s, pessimism has had an increasing impact on the cultural and political consciousness of society. The influence of Schopenhauer is experienced by F. Nietzsche, R. Wagner, W. Raabe, although Raabe himself insisted on the independence of his critical position, independent of Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer's ideas were especially widespread in Austria-Hungary, they also had a response in France and Russia.

Significant changes have taken place in public consciousness left their mark on German literature. The most remarkable phenomenon in the literature of the second half of the century is the so-called "poetic realism".

The era of poetic realism lasts roughly from the middle to the end of the 19th century.

The term "poetic realism" belongs to the German writer and art theorist Otto Ludwig (1813 - 1865). Poetic realism in his view is a synthesis of real and ideal principles, natural and random, individual and typical, objective content of life and subjective author's experience.

Literary critic Yu. Schmidt assigns the leading role in the new literature to the democratic hero, a representative of the middle stratum of society; believing that realistic literature should be relevant, but free from political predilections, he attaches particular importance to the harmony of composition, clarity and simplicity of style. As a literary model, he reveres the English realist C. Dickens.

G. Freytag's social novel "Income and Expenses" (1855), the first edition of "Green Heinrich" (1854) by G. Keller and the first volume of his short stories "People from Zeldvila" (1858), "Chronicle of Sparrow Street" (1857) by V. Raabe become the first works of poetic realism. Somewhat later, in the 1870s and 1880s, K. F. Meyer and T. Fontane, a novelist, entered the literary scene, whose work became the pinnacle of German realism.

In practice, poetic realism turned out to be a much broader and deeper phenomenon than the literary-critical theories of Ludwig and Schmidt suggested. The key principle of poetic realism coincides with the main tasks of the realist movement in French, Russian, and English literature. The main object of the image is modern reality in its cause-and-effect relationships. Of particular importance is the social, national, historical determinism of characters and destinies, attention to detail.

Modern German science, in contrast to the established tradition, considers poetic realism as a natural phenomenon of the era, the dominant of which was the defeat of the revolution of 1848, the resulting disappointment and deep distrust of new forms of life, determined by the growth of technology and industry, capital, economic development, pragmatic, aggressive, chauvinistic spirit of official policy, energetically and successfully replacing old ideas, ideals and their bearers. New forms of life did not bring freedom with them, rather, they enslaved man in a new way, dehumanizing society and life itself.

Unlike English or French realism, German poetic realism is characterized by a personal perspective and a look from the inside, which means the subjectivization of the narrative. Therefore, poetic realism most clearly manifests itself not in a novel about society and an era, but rather in a novel of education or, and this is even more often, in a short story, short story, story.

However, poetic realism does not absolutize the subjective, and very often removes the pathos of the subjective with humor. Humor turns out to be the most important element in the worldview of poetic realists. Humor is the knowledge that the crack that split the consciousness and the world of the classical idealistic-romantic era destroyed the world of old values ​​as well. Humor is, as it were, a feeling of this split, and sadness, melancholy, " world sorrow- his emotional experience. Sentimentality, elegiac tonality in the prose of poetic realism is, like humor, one of the forms of a negative attitude towards reality, expressed in internal reconciliation, the rejection of opposition and opposition to life. All this various forms"illumination of reality" realistic literature.

The interest of this era in the German classics and romanticism and its partial revival not only in neo-romanticism, but also in poetic realism are natural.

In the German reality of the second half of the 19th century, they continue to find a nutrient medium and literary traditions Restoration era, especially the Biedermeier tradition with its ideal of private family life and quiet joys in harmony with nature. They are still looking for and finding a way out of the social and civic life that is not susceptible to the influence of the human personality.

The reception of reminiscence also contributes to the “enlightenment of reality”. "Invented" and "remembered" reality have much in common and are similar in structure. Therefore, the story-recollection is a favorite device of the German realists.

It is important to note that some principles of German realism, in particular the principle of recollection, which is close to fantasy, and therefore to creativity in general, anticipate the search for literature of the "end of the century", literature of decadence and even modernism of the early 20th century ("In Search of Lost Time" M Proust).

German realism absorbed the pessimistic spirit of its time, the feeling of the irretrievable loss of the past, which, from the distance of the past, is acquiring more and more enlightened features, absorbed the romantic rejection of new "rough", cynical forms of life and its new owners. The tragic hopelessness in Storm's short stories and in Raabe's novels brings their works closer to the literature of symbolism, to the art of the late 19th - early 20th century, throwing a bridge from the romanticism of the early 19th century to its end, and encourages them to see their work in the broad context of the artistic searches of the era.

The most important place in German realistic literature belongs to the prose writer and poet Theodor Storm (1817 - 1888), who said that his short stories grew out of his poetry and are closely connected with it. hard life Storm, lawyer, exile, then Landvogt and judge in his native Husum, is inseparable from Schleswig-Holstein and its confused fate under the rule of Denmark and then Prussia. Gentle, subtle, elegant prose of Storm, not shaken by political and religious conflicts, absorbs troubles and grief. modern man, his feelings and experiences. Storm's immersion in the world of human feelings, a kind of sentimental enlightenment of the surrounding wretched philistine life fully reflected the mood and spiritual state of society in the era after the defeat of the revolution of 1848, in the era of unfulfilled hopes and disappointment, when the horizon of universal interests narrows to interest individual person, and the general rise is replaced by a decline and loss of pathos.

Storm in his work anticipates the interest in the inner life of a person, in its hidden depths, which is characteristic of the culture and literature of the "end of the century", that is, the next era. Thus, one of Storm's most famous early short stories, "Immensee" (1850), is a masterpiece not only of German, but also of world short stories of the 19th century. It is no coincidence that the work withstood 30 editions during the life of the author.

"Immensee" is an example of the so-called lyrical novel or mood novel, which was brilliantly developed by the romantics. Poetic texts are organically woven into the work, playing the role of leitmotifs. The short story is generally built on the leitmotif technique on the principle of remembering and shifting time layers. It is distinguished by a subtle knowledge of the human psyche and the world of feelings. The narration in "Immensee" is built as a memory, which determines the elegiac tone of the story and the dominant sad mood. The general melancholic tone of the narration is in harmony with the play of nuances of light, color, and melody.

A sentimental-melancholic mood permeates the entire work. It is initially set in the introduction: “In late autumn, at a quiet evening hour, an elderly well-dressed gentleman was slowly descending along the road to the city ... Under his arm he held a long cane with a gold knob, his dark eyes. Strangely combined with snow-white hair, and seemed to harbor the bitterness of an unhappy youth, they calmly looked around or down at the city, spreading in a haze of golden rays. The short story ends with a fragment named like the opening "Old Man"; together they create a frame structure within which the plot action develops on the basis of recollections. It is dramatic in both the problem and the form of deployment.

The Immensee raises social issues. Bourgeois calculation destroys love, and the new ambitious bourgeoisie triumphs over the romantic moods of the representatives of the old-style bourgeoisie. Although the social background of events is invariably present in Storm's short stories, it is always included in the system of human relations as one of the parts of a whole complex complex, a network of causes and effects that cause certain actions of the characters and determine their behavior. Among these reasons, the social principle is by no means assigned a primary role along with psychology, feelings, passions, the subconscious, traditional ideas, habits, individual logic of the personality, which is the main object of the writer's interest.

The plot of the work moves in the context of the mood that accompanies it. This is a story of lost love: both Reinhard and Elisabeth were unable to defend their feelings. Elizabeth succumbs to her mother's "cares" and marries a wealthy but unloved man, Reinhard does not show due determination. The plot is not new, the story is almost everyday in the life of the burgher environment. The main event of the novel is connected with the meeting of the heroes who retained their feelings and feelings in their souls. as it turned out, hard going through the loss.

The author draws the heroes of a completed destiny, separate fragments which became knots of reminiscences: "Children", "In the Forest", "Letter", "Elizabeth", etc. These are essentially independent scenes of a lyrical plot, which are "fastened" by the experience of the characters. It's not so much the plot that's important, but the artistic means with which the author embodies his intention. The main attention is paid not so much to the movement of the action as to the creation of a lyrical mood. Taken together, the scenes reproduce a sad love story.

The dramatic development of the feelings of the characters is foreseen from the very first pages. Reinhard seems overly romantic. Elizabeth does not really believe in his dreams of distant India, and his stories about elves slightly annoy her. Perhaps that is why her mother's arguments in favor of marrying Erich seemed convincing to her. The confrontation between Erich and Reinhard in the short story is barely outlined. Well-groomed vineyards, a vast vegetable garden, a new distillery, a cozy house - everything testifies to Erich's efficiency and practicality, which Reinhard does not possess.

Creating a realistic novel of mood, Storm develops in it several leitmotifs that give the conflict an additional, amplifying sound. This is the song: “My mother ordered me / To take another husband.” This is the description of the white lily that the hero is trying to get. At the end of the work, Reinhard, a lonely old man, sits in an armchair, and the gathering darkness appears to him as “a wide and gloomy lake”, where “among wide leaves a white water lily” floats alone.

The drama in Storm's short story is the drama of a particular case, private life, it manifests itself in an ordinary form, without an explosion violent passions, experiences, emotional explanations. At the same time, a special case acquires in the work that “bright light”, about the need for which for this genre Ludwig Tieck wrote.

In the late 1850s and early 1860s, one can state an aggravation internal conflict in Storm's short stories ("In the Castle" (1862), " University years"(1863)). It should be noted that one of Storm's best and last short stories, The Rider on the White Horse, was written outside the period under study, in 1888.

Storm's novelistics were surprisingly in tune with the time - and a quiet, but clearly audible sound. social problems, understood as universal human problems, and by their form - the play of leitmotifs, the displacement of the temporal layers of the narrative, symbolism.

One of the main themes of the work of Wilhelm Raabe (1831 - 1910) is the theme of self-determination of the individual, his right to his own life in opposition to modern reality, its inhumane spirit.

The experience of 1848 led Raabe to a complete rejection of both bourgeois philistinism and the psychology of success of the practical and aggressive burgher. In his work, a type of eccentric, an original, that is, a strange personality constantly arises, which can exist only by separating itself from society. The liberation from oppression, from the pressure of the environment and the way out for the individual is salvation in the inner world or overcoming life with the help of humor. The subjective spiritual world of the individual always opposes the social world in Raabe.

Raabe's literary activity unfolded in the 1950s. The writer became famous for the Chronicle of Sparrow Street (1857), which opened the first period of his work, which lasted until 1870, until the Franco-Prussian war.

The action of the Chronicle is based on the story of love seduction, which, however, finds a happy resolution in the third generation. The sentimental enlightenment of reality at the end of the Chronicle, full of humor, smooths out those realistic pictures that at its beginning give an idea of ​​the social and political situation in Germany in the middle of the 19th century. The model for the writer in this novel was Lawrence Stern, implicitly quoted in it, as well as the young Schiller and Jean-Paul Richter. For Raabe, the subjective inner reality of the consciousness experiencing and telling the "I" is more essential and richer than the objective reality. The Chronicle of Sparrow Street is a kind of chronicle of a Berlin street and its definition as a chronicle quite accurately characterizes the genre of the work. The chronicle is conducted on behalf of the narrator; this is the old Walchoder, who keeps a diary, transmitting many stories and episodes, some melodramatic, some tragic, although everyday.

In the narrator's memories, different time levels are mixed, due to which an imaginary parallelism arises between the past and the present, between the described time and the time of telling. In this virtuoso narrative style the story of three generations unfolds, consisting of many episodes, connected by a fictitious chronicler and the unity of the place - Sparrow Street.

Already in this work, the main types of literary heroes of Raabe are found - simple workers, whose spiritual qualities oppose them to people from high society. In this democratism, Raabe is comparable to Dickens. At the same time, avoiding sharp Dickensian contrasts, hyperbolism and eccentricity, Raabe approaches the manner of romantic Dickens with his affirmation of the moral example of small people, their work and life, human unity.

In the novels of 1860 - 1870, Raabe, focusing on the samples of Goethe (novels about Wilhelm Meister) and Dickens ("David Copperfield"), tried to depict both the path of personal development and modern social life, combining two types of novel - the "novel of education" ( or "novel of becoming") and a novel about modern life. These are the novels The Hungry Pastor (1864), Abu Telfan (1867), The Funeral Droges (1870), which are close to each other and make up the so-called Stuttgart trilogy, although the trilogy in literally words they are not. They are distinguished by a tragic worldview and the idea of ​​the isolation of the individual, who finds for himself a personal refuge and salvation from the world, the political situation of which seems hopeless to the writer. But Raabe's pessimism does not prevent him from seeing the comic side of life and people, humor "removes" the insolubility of conflicts.

It should be noted that as the author of critical novels about modern life, Raabe remains completely alone in the German literature of the 1860s. But gradually he, too, renounces the novel with ramified action and the reproduction of the social life of the present; the reflection of the world in individual consciousness becomes in the future the main structural element of its image.

1814-1815 years. Vienna, the capital of Austria. For the first time, the heads of European states came together to work out new conditions for the existence of the reshaped great and small powers of this part of the continent. The "Black Angel" (Napoleon I) was defeated, the "White Angel" (Alexander I) triumphed.

Vienna rejoiced. In the evening - high society balls. Luxurious ladies' toilets and - the waltz that was then in vogue. The most striking of the dancers was, of course, the Russian Tsar. At one time he was admired by Napoleon ("Look how Alexander I dances").

Mocking people dubbed this meeting of the most significant political figures of that time the “dancing congress” (Alexander I, the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm III, the Austrian emperor Franz I).

But that was just the front side. During the day there were important negotiations, disputes between diplomats, and behind the scenes there were intrigues, secret agreements, deals.

The inveterate intriguer Talleyrand fussed feverishly. As always, faithfully serving France, he did not forget his personal interests, the latter causing outbursts of anger in Napoleon: "Mud in silk stockings!" To which, as is known, the minister replied: “It is a pity that such great person ill-bred."

Talleyrand's task now was to prevent the dismemberment of France. And he succeeded in this, playing behind the scenes and playing on the contradictions of the victorious countries.

Frightening England and Austria with the strengthening of Russia, he managed to organize behind Alexander's back a secret military alliance of these states and France against Russia. Castlereagh (England) and Metternich (Austria), lavishing smiles on the Russian Tsar, planted a hefty pig on him. We will not consider the map here Western Europe, then tailored by the Congress of Vienna. We only note that the "German Union" was created from 35 monarchies and 4 free cities. Prior to that, these monarchies were countless.

In the political history of Germany in the second half of the century, the Iron Chancellor Bismarck played a huge role. The policy of Prussia, and under its supremacy there was a struggle for the unification of Germany, was shaped by this man of inexorable will. He considered Austria and France to be the main opponents of the unification of Germany and managed to organize two wars: the Austro-Prussian war in 1866 and the Franco-Prussian war in 1870-1871.

France was then defeated, the Germans entered Paris, Napoleon III was deposed. Then the events of the Paris Commune took place. The same Bismarck helped to suppress the Communards.

Such, in brief, is the history of Germany over the past century. Let us take only two names from her literary history: Hoffmann and Heinrich Heine.

Heinrich Heine (1797-1856)

Summer night dream! Aimless
This song is fantastic
Like love, like life is aimless,
As the creator and the universe.
Obeying only a whim,
Now at a gallop, now on wings
Rushing into the fairy kingdom
My beloved Pegasus...
My white horse, winged horse,
Forged with pure gold,
Strings of pearls - reins,
Run wherever you want, horse!
G. Heine

Before us is the creative program of the German poet, who, after Goethe, won first place on the poetic Olympus of Germany. Absolute freedom artistic creativity. The poet is a creator, his song is whimsical, his fantasy is capricious, like the outlines of a cloud floating across a clear sky. However, she can also look into the most nightmarish abysses where monsters live. In a word, no one has power over the poet, no one has the right to prescribe the form and content of his dreams to the poet. The program of all the poets of the world in the first half of the 19th century. “You are a king, live alone, go along the free path to where your free mind leads you!” (A. S. Pushkin).

So, first of all - the personality of the poet and his freedom, and, of course, the freedom of any personality in general. Such ideas in the political sphere became possible after the French Revolution. The Enlighteners, who were preparing this revolution, wrote the word “Freedom!” on their banners, but they demanded citizenship from the artist, the poet and painter, in their opinion, had to give themselves to the idea. Let me remind you of Diderot's categorical demand: "We are on the payroll of society, we must give an account of our talents." The era that came after the revolution, the era of romantics
rejected this commitment.

The cited poem by Heine also contains his philosophical views. Perhaps they are sad: life is aimless, love is aimless, song (poetry, art) is aimless.

The son of a wealthy bourgeois (“My father was a merchant, and quite rich”), who from childhood listened to conversations about finances, profits, incomes, etc., he turned out to be the most incapable in the world of righteous and unrighteous money earners (“... heaven, I would have only holes in my head, and the children of Israel would have merrily picked up this silver coin”).

His first and perhaps most significant book is a collection of lyrical poems ("The Book of Songs"). Love, delight, suffering, and all this in a romantic haze of dreams, ghosts and the very mistress of all nightmares - Death.

I had an ominous dream...
And he was lovable and terrible to me;
And takes a song for the heart:
And long images of sleep
The soul, embarrassed, was full ...
Dressed in green all around,
There was a bright pond in the garden,
The girl bent over him
And some soap. unearthly
It had everything: both the camp and the look,
And growth, and tread, and outfit.
She seemed to me
And unfamiliar and dear.

She washes and sings -
“You splash, wave, splash!
Rinse my white canvas!”
I approached her and said:
"Tell me, my beauty,
Tell me where you are from and who
And why are you here, and what are you washing?”
She answered me: “Be ready!
I wash your mortal cover.
And only said - like smoke
Everything has disappeared... I am motionless...

The poem was written in 1816, when the poet was 19 years old. The motifs are typical of romantic poetry. But Heinrich Heine, true to his mocking nature, soon begins to make fun of himself and, in general, of a romantic craving for cemetery motifs.

Heine is not only a great poet, but also a wonderful prose writer. True, his prose is not fictional, he did not write stories, short stories, or novels, but only composed brilliant lyric-satirical essays, where the play of a free ironic mind, spiritual impulses and broad education were mixed.

His book "Travel Pictures" strikes with youthful, and I would say, maximalist hatred of the layman and quivering, also youthful (the book was written in 1826) enthusiastic love for nature. He described his journey to the Harz. The Germans created legends about this land of mountains and forests, inhabited by ghosts and witches. In the spirit of these legends, the poet leads his story: “The mists disappeared like ghosts”, “The night raced on its black steed, and its long mane fluttered in the wind”, “Icy chills pierced me to the marrow of my bones, I trembled like an aspen leaf, and hardly dared to look at the ghost.

Irony, however, does not want to leave the poet: it turns out that the ghost has a “transcendental gray frock coat” (the German philosophers of that time had the word “transcendental” in great use), “abstract legs” and “mathematical face”.

And then a wonderful page about the beauty of nature: the night passed, the ghosts melted away, and the morning with all the colors of spring blossomed mountains, meadows, forests. “I again walked from mountain to mountain, and a beautiful sun hovered in front of me, illuminating all new beauties. The mountain spirit was clearly favorable to me. After all, he knew that such a being as a poet could tell a lot of wonderful things, and he showed me this morning his Harz in such a way that not everyone can see it. But Harz also saw me as only a few saw me, pearls trembled on my eyelashes, as precious as those that hung on the grass of the meadows.

Pilgrimage to Goethe

In 1824, young Heine met with the elderly Goethe. “I ask Your Excellency to grant me the happiness of standing in front of you for a few minutes. I don't want to burden you with my presence, I just want to kiss your hand and then leave. My name is Heinrich Heine, I am a native of the Rhine, I recently settled in Göttingen, and before that I lived for several years in Berlin, where I knew many of your old acquaintances and admirers and learned to love you more and more every day. I am also a poet, and three years ago I had the courage to send you my Poems, and a year and a half ago my Tragedies with the addition of Lyrical Intermezzos. In addition, I am ill, to improve my health I traveled to the Harz, and there, on the Brocken, a desire seized me - to go to Weimar to worship Goethe. I have come here as a pilgrim, in the full sense of the word, on foot and in worn out clothes, and I await the fulfillment of my request. I remain with fiery sympathy and devotion - Heinrich Heine.

Goethe received the young poet, whose name soon became known to the whole world. Eight years later, when the creator of Faust was no longer alive, Heine recalled this meeting in Weimar: “His appearance was as significant as the word that lives in his works, and his figure was just as harmonious, bright, joyful , noble, proportional, and on him, as on antique statue, one could study Greek art. His eyes were calm, like the eyes of a deity... True, time covered his head with snow, but could not bow it. He continued to wear it proudly and high, and when he spoke, it seemed that he was given the opportunity to indicate with his finger to the stars in the sky the path they should follow.

Later, when the name of Heinrich Heine became widely known, Goethe spoke of him to his secretary: “It cannot be denied that Heine has many brilliant qualities, but he lacks love. He loves his readers just as little as his co-poets, and loves himself more, so the words of the apostle can be applied to him: “And if I spoke in human and angelic language and did not have their love, then I would be ringing metal.”
Even these days I read his poems - and his rich talent is undoubted, but, I repeat, he lacks love and therefore he will never influence as he should influence. He will be feared, and he will be the God of those who would willingly be such deniers, but do not have talents for that.

When the gods get bored in the sky, they open the window and look at the Parisian boulevards.
Heinrich Heine

In 1831 the poet left Germany, and forever. Until the end of his days he lives in France. He said so many bad things about the German provinces that it was no longer possible to stay in the country. He was even banned from entering Germany. “This Prussia was disgusting, deeply disgusting to me, this stiff, hypocritical, hypocritical Prussia, this Tartuffe between states.”

The Germans did not forgive him for this and, it seems, still. Several times in German society the question arose of creating a monument to the great poet, and each time there was a powerful protest against it.

In France, Heine became interested in socialist ideas, met with the then young Marx, got acquainted with the ideas of Saint-Simon. This latter, the creator of social utopias, was already in the grave, but his followers acted. The man who planned to turn the whole way of life of mankind upside down was the most naive, kindest and completely helpless creature in everyday life. In his youth, he ordered his valet to wake him up with the words: “Get up, count, humanity is waiting for your deeds!”, In old age he fell into such poverty that the valet devoted to him supported the old man at his own expense.

How many troubles such donquixotes could bring to people if they had power!

Heine soon became disillusioned with the then new socialist ideas. The ideas of democracy and universal equality seemed to him dangerous in their consequences. With gloomy sarcasm, he wrote about this in the poem "Atta Troll" (Atta Troll is a cave dweller, a bear and a preacher):

Unity! Unity!
We will overthrow the power of the monopolist,
Establish a kingdom in the world
Animal justice.
Its main law
There will be equality and brotherhood
God's creatures, without distinction
Faith, smell and skins.
Equality in everything! minister
Can be any donkey.
Lion at the mill with sacks
Modestly trot in harness.
As for the dog -
What is it about servility?
The fact that people have been with her for centuries
Treated like a dog.
But she's in the free realm
Where all the past will be returned to her,
All legal rights
Become noble again.
"The Dried Image of Sorrow"

Heine died in terrible agony. For eight years he did not leave the bed, he called it "mattress grave." And at the same time he was full of spiritual strength, with a clear mind and creative will. "I endure such torments that even the Spanish Inquisition could not invent." One of his friends who visited him wrote about his appearance: "... it was a head of infinite beauty, the real head of Christ, with the smile of Mephistopheles, at times running through his pale dry lips." Even in his youth, in a letter to a friend, he dropped a phrase, then, perhaps, not without a romantic pose: “When everything is lost and there is no more hope Then life becomes a disgrace and death a duty."

Now he was saying something else: "Life is lost for me forever, but I love life so ardently, so passionately."

On one cold, damp morning, he was buried in the Montmartre cemetery by a few Parisian friends - Theophile Gauthier, Dumas, the historian Mignet, the writer Paul Saint-Victor. It was February 17, 1856.

Hoffmann (1776-1822)

His writings are nothing but a terrible cry of anguish in twenty volumes.
Heinrich Heine

The French poet Baudelaire has one wonderful poem - "Albatross". A proud and beautiful bird, when it, spreading its wings, soars in the sky, once on the ground, it becomes clumsy, heavy. Such is the poet, the artist, any artistic nature.

Baudelaire wrote about himself, but poetic allegory approaches many in a very, very intellectual and artistic way.
gifted people who often face a tragic fate due to the disorder of life, etc.

The theme of opposing the idealist artist and the pragmatic layman became the main one in Hoffmann's work. His own fate is tragic.

Since childhood, he discovered the talent of both a musician and a painter, but he was being prepared for a career as a lawyer. After graduating from the university, he got a position as an official in Poznan, but the authorities, dissatisfied with the caricatures that he wrote with brilliance on them, sent him away, to the provincial town of Plock. Soon, however, he managed to move to live in Warsaw. Here he founded a musical society, painted the concert hall himself, and was himself a bandmaster. The time was stormy (the Napoleonic wars, but the writer does not want to see them, he is out of politics, he lives in the world of his romantic dreams). Hoffmann, as Herzen wrote about him, “does not notice at all that all of Europe is in blood and fire. Meanwhile, the war, seeing his inattention, decides to visit him in Warsaw herself; he would not have noticed her here either, but it was necessary to stop the concerts for a while.

Napoleon, having sent troops into Poland, ordered the dismissal of all Prussian officials. Hoffmann also received his resignation. He is terribly poor. In 1812, he writes in his diary: "I sold my frock coat to dine."

Only after receiving a position as an official in Berlin does he acquire some material well-being and writes his crazy phantasmagoric works. As he wrote them, Herzen tells (“Telescope”, vol. XXXIII): “Every single day, late in the evening, some person appeared in a wine cellar in Berlin, drank one bottle after another and sat until dawn ... There are strange, ugly , gloomy, funny, terrible shadows filled Hoffmann, and in a state of extreme irritation he grabbed a pen and wrote his convulsive, crazy stories.

Sometimes he was afraid of his own fantasy heroes. Then he woke up his wife, and she obediently sat down next to him, knitting a stocking, keeping him calm.

So he wrote 12 volumes (“Serapion Brothers”, “ fantasy stories in the spirit of Callo”, “Notes of the Cat Murr”, “Little Tsakhes”, “Princess Brambilla”, the lovely “Nutcracker”, which Tchaikovsky brilliantly revived in the ballet, etc.).

Hoffmann dies quite early, stricken with a serious illness - tascia of the spinal cord, like his fellow writer Heinrich Heine.

Two worlds

The real world is cruel, harsh and difficult,
In it every day we fight to the death
And often, leaving the hard everyday life,
In our imagination we create something else for ourselves.
Intangible, weightless, transparent,
It is woven entirely from the pearls of a dream,
And often it means much more to us,
Than all the affairs of worldly fuss.

Hoffmann did not accept the interests of the layman, the little mundane philistine, timid, unpretentious, self-satisfied, never raising his gaze to heaven, where the highest ideals of human existence soar. Oh, how pitiful they are, these little mundane people, how pitiful this real world itself is!

One must renounce everything earthly, one must learn not to notice the ugliness of material life and “dream with open eyes, he reasoned. If you manage to indulge in a dream like that, then you are a truly happy person. You are poor, ugly, you have a frock coat with torn elbows. But rise above it. Love your dream, and it will bring you everything: wealth, beauty, and joy. Love poetry, for it contains the highest knowledge.

In everyday life, in poverty and the scarcity of life's blessings, he, perhaps, did not differ much from our dearest and unforgettable Akaky Akakievich Bashmachkin, but the titanic forces of mind and talent lived in him.

"One of the greatest German poets, a painter of the invisible inner world, a clairvoyant of the mysterious forces of nature and spirit, an educator of youth, the highest ideal of a writer for children,” Belinsky wrote about him.

Reading Hoffmann, we constantly feel, as it were, the coexistence of two worlds: and (an amazing paradox!) according to all the criteria of realism, the described real world and another world - invisible, unreal, created by almost insane human imagination, the beautiful world of a beautiful dream.

The description of these two worlds is devoted to the novel "Notes of the Cat Murr". Cat Murr writes a diary on the back of the papers of the brilliant violinist Kreisler about his adventures, about his love for the cat Mismis. Having read on one page the enthusiastic praises of the beautiful world of dreams, we, turning it over, find ourselves in the tiny happiness of the cat Murr, purring with the joy of gluttony and the caresses of his darling.

Hoffmann's novel The Serapion Brothers is very curious in this topic of opposing the two worlds. This, in essence, is not a novel, but a series of short stories, stories presented in the form of dialogues, conversations of friends, about various stories heard or known to them.

Several friends formed the Confraternity of Saint Serapion, a kind of club in which these curious Serapion conversations took place.

The following story served as the basis for the Brotherhood.

In southern Germany, not far from a small provincial town, in a small forest, the narrator met strange person“in a brown desert cassock, with a straw hat on his head and with a black disheveled beard. He sat on a piece of rock hanging over a ravine and gazed thoughtfully into the distance, arms folded across his chest.

In front of me, it seemed, sat an anchorite of the first centuries of Christianity. It was once highly educated and clever man from a wealthy family. Upon graduation, he received a high diplomatic post, and he was destined for a brilliant career. And then one day he disappeared. The search did not lead to anything, and only a few years later a rumor spread that a strange monk appeared in the mountains of Tyrol, living all alone, calling himself the hermit Serapion. A certain Count P. once saw him and recognized him as his disappeared nephew. He was brought home by force, but no matter how hard they fought, he was unable to regain his sanity. He ran away again and was left alone.

Serapion built himself a dwelling in the forest and lived alone, imagining himself to be Serapion, who in 251 in Egypt was martyred by the emperor Decius.

The man who told this story was talking to "Serapion". He discovered a wonderful gift of speech, the power logical thinking. He was calm and happy in his blindness. “I confess, the frost hit me on the skin! And it was, to tell the truth, why. Before me stood a madman who considered his fortune the most precious gift of heaven, who found peace and happiness in it alone, and wholeheartedly wished me a similar fate.

I wanted to leave, but Serapion spoke again, changing his tone.

You must not think that the solitude of this wild desert is not interrupted for me by anyone. Every day they visit me wonderful people in all branches of science and art. Yesterday I had Ariosto, and after him Dante and Petrarch. Tonight I am waiting for the famous teacher of the church, Evagrius, and I think to talk with him about church affairs, as I talked about poetry yesterday. Sometimes I climb to the top of that mountain from which, in good weather, you can see the towers of Alexandria, and then wonderful deeds and events flash before my eyes ... "

So, fantasy world dreams, detachment from material life. High dream soaring! Supreme spirituality!

The harsh God drove people out of paradise,
Condemned to labor and poverty,
And the devil is crafty, playing revenge,
He returned paradise to them, but in a strange void:
Deceitful, misty and unearthly,
With unfathomable subtle beauty,
An unprecedented, distant and sinless land,
All illuminated by a bright dream.

The ways of the Lord are inscrutable, and a hundred years after the death of Hoffmann, his “Serapion brothers” appeared in the restless post-October Russia. In the days of fierce class battles (and, alas, they exist, and the French historians of the 19th century, who discovered this phenomenon of social life, were not mistaken), several young writers, talented and arrogant (among them the future famous writers M. Zoshchenko, N. Tikhonov, K. Fedin, V. Kaverin and others. Perhaps V. Shklovsky was the inspiration, and the most zealous L. Lunts, who died at the age of twenty-four in Berlin), created the so-called literary group"Serapion brothers", using the idea of ​​Hoffmann. They were looking for new literary forms, and all the youth were then carried away by the overthrow of the “old”, and, most importantly, they demanded the freedom of the artist from tendentiousness (“The Serapion Brothers reject every trend in principle,” their manifesto said).

Having published the collective collection The Serapion Brothers in 1922, the writers dispersed, but their memory remained, they were remembered in 1946.

They recalled the harsh and cocky lines of Lev Lunts: “We have gathered in the days of revolutionary, in the days of powerful political tension.

"Whoever is not with us is against us!" - they told us from right and left, - with whom are you, the Serapion brothers, with the communists or against the communists, for the revolution or against the revolution? “With whom are we, Serapion brothers? The hermit Serapion and I”… “The public ruled Russian literature for too long and painfully… We don't want utilitarianism. We're not here for propaganda. Art is real, like life itself, and like life itself, it is without purpose and without meaning, it exists because it cannot not exist.

One of the leaders of the ruling communist party, A. A. Zhdanov, summed up in 1946: this is the role that “the Serapion brothers assign to art, depriving it of ideology, social significance, proclaiming the lack of ideology of art, art without a goal, art for the sake of art, art without purpose without meaning. This is the preaching of rotten apolitism, philistinism and vulgarity.”

A. A. Zhdanov exaggerated, "Serapions" did not threaten the state either in the early 20s, and even more so after the victorious war of the Great Patriotic War. “Serapion” Mikhail Zoshchenko wrote in 1922: “... the Bolsheviks are closest to me. And I agree with them to Bolynevich… I love peasant Russia, and in this I am on the same path with the Bolsheviks.”

Romanticism in German literature began as a protest against Weimar neoclassicism, which was associated with the work of Johann Wolfgang Goethe. The main theorists of the new direction were the brothers August and Friedrich von Schlegel.

August studied literature, he is the author of "Lectures on Fine Literature and Art" and "Lectures on dramatic art and literature" (1797 - 1810), which laid the ideological foundations of romanticism. Peru Friedrich Schlegel owns the novel "Lucinda" (1799).

One of the first romantics was the poet and writer Novalis, author of the poems Hymns to the Night (1800) and historical novel"Heinrich von Ofterdingen" (1802). The members of the Heidedberg circle of romantics, the poets Ludwig von Arnim and Clemens Brentano, published a collection of German folk songs"Magic horn of a boy" (1806--1808). Von Arnim is also the author of the historical novel The Keepers of the Crown (1817).

Titan German romanticism became the poet Heinrich von Kleist, author of the comedy The Broken Jug (published 1811), the poems Prince Friedrich of Homburg (1810, published 1821) and Kathen of Heilbronn (published 1810).

The rise of the democratic movement in Germany put an end to romanticism, which idealized the Middle Ages. In the 1830s, liberal writers united in the Young Germany movement, whose members began to write in the style of realism. The most significant realist was the poet Heinrich Heine, who, for political reasons, was forced to leave his homeland and emigrate to Paris.

In 1833, he published in France the book "Germany", in which he introduced the French to German culture. Heine's work was distinguished by vivid satire and protest against social injustice. His poems belong to the pen: “Tannhäuser” (1836), “Atta Troll” (1843), “Germany. winter fairy tale» (1844).

The true flowering of German literature came at the beginning of the 20th century. At this time, a whole galaxy of writers and poets appeared who determined the development of German culture for decades. The epicenter of this literary renaissance was Austria.

German symbolism is associated with the name of the Austrian poet Rainer Maria Rilke. He owns the collections of poems The Book of Images (1902), The Book of Hours (1905) and the collection of short stories The Last (1902) Rilke was also the first to make poetic translation into German "Words about Igor's Campaign".

The Austrian writer Franz Kafka worked in the style of expressionism. His phantasmagoric novels The Trial (published in 1925) and The Castle (published in 1926) became a prophecy and a protest against the emerging totalitarianism.

The works of another Austrian writer, Stefan Zweig, are imbued with subtle psychologism. He is the author of the historical novels Mary Stuart (1931) and Magellan (1937), a series of essays star clock humanity”, short stories “Amok” (1922), “Confusion of feelings” (1927).

In German literature of this period, the work of the brothers Heinrich and Thomas Mann occupies a special place. Heinrich Mann is the author of the novels Master Unrath (1905), the trilogy The Loyal Subject, The Youth of King Henry IV (1935) and The Maturity of King Henry IV (1937).

Thomas Mann's first novel, The Buddenbrooks, published in 1901, brought him worldwide fame. In 1924, his novel The Magic Mountain was published, in 1933-1943 the writer worked on a cycle of novels on the biblical story Joseph and His Brothers, in 1947 the novel Doctor Faust was published. In 1929, Thomas Mann was awarded the Nobel Prize.

Erich Maria Remarque literally burst into literature with the author of the novel All Quiet on the Western Front (1929), which for the first time truthfully illuminated the entire ruthlessness of the First World War. In 1938 he published the novel "Three Comrades", in 1946 his most significant work, the novel "Arc de Triomphe", was published.

A very special place in German literature is occupied by the work of the Swiss writer Hermann Hesse. His most famous works are considered: philosophical novels"Seedcard" (1922), "Steppenwolf" (1927), "The Glass Bead Game" (1943). In 1946, Hesse was awarded the Nobel Prize.

XIX century as a cultural epoch. The versatility of this concept. Peculiarities literary process in its connections with social problems, the national liberation movement of peoples and the political events of the era. The nature of understanding the revolutionary events in France at the end of the XVIII century. and revolutions of 1830, 1848 and 1848-1849. in European countries. The role of these events in the spiritual life of European countries. The role of philosophical and aesthetic ideas, as well as sociological and utopian doctrines in the development of literature and art. Advances in scientific thought and the influence of the natural sciences on literature. The significance of religious and philosophical and ethical teachings for the literary movement of the 19th century. Material and moral aspects social progress in relation to art and literature.

Literary trends that determine the main content of the literary process of the 19th century: romanticism, realism, naturalism, symbolism. Continuity ties, interaction and the nature of the confrontation between them. Variety of literary movements, schools and directions. The originality of the national variants of each of the literary movements. Periodization of the literary process, taking into account the coexistence of several literary trends in the same years, the duration of the process of changing one direction to another, as well as the lack of complete synchrony in the stages of development of different national literatures. The concept of "end of the century" in its literary and aesthetic, and not just chronological sense.

Romanticism as an era of the spiritual life of society, its diverse manifestations not only in the field of artistic creativity, but also in philosophy, aesthetics, historiography, sociology, customs. The system of worldview and aesthetic principles romanticism: the concept of a person, his relationship with society, romantic historiography, the ideas of romantics about the role of an individual (“heroes”) and an unknown person (“crowd” person) in the historical process; the idea of ​​national identity and the concept of "local color"; romantic natural philosophy; acute skepticism about progress understood only as growth wealth; achievements of sciences and technical improvements; approval of the idea of ​​moral, spiritual progress, as well as the need to improve the social structure; utopian visions of the romantics about the future.

Aesthetic Views of the Romantics: Historicism in the Perception of the 19th

century as a new literary era; successive links of romanticism, especially with the traditions of the art of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the 18th century; ideas of romantics about the meaning and goals of literary

creativity; concept of creative personality; the role of German classical philosophy in shaping the general picture of the world of romantics and their literary and aesthetic ideas.

The concept of imagination as the highest creative ability. The relation of the aesthetics of romanticism to the Aristotelian principle of imitation (mimesis). The Spiritual Sphere as the Main Subject of Romantic Art. romantic psychology. Variations of types of the romantic hero. The most important categories of romantic aesthetics: ideal, infinity, duality, conflict between the individual and society. Mythologization and symbolization of the depicted world, anthropocentrism, historicism. The system of literary genres of romanticism, the fundamental importance in it of the historical novel and historical drama, the psychological novel and poetic lyrics, including philosophical ones.

The variety of variations of the general principles of romanticism in the work of specific writers. Creative originality as one of the postulates of romantic aesthetics. The romantic concept of freedom in different aspects: creative and socio-political. The attitude of romantics to the problems of morality and moral perfection of man.

The specificity of variations of romanticism in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, determined by the uniqueness of the historical path and national traditions of each of them. The relativity of the concept of the integrity of romanticism as an aesthetic system. The general chronology of romanticism and its variations in the literatures of specific countries. The concept of "the era of romanticism". The duration and stability of romantic traditions throughout the 19th century, the interaction of romanticism with other literary movements. The significance of romanticism for the art of subsequent eras, including for the 20th century.

Romanticism in Germany. Specificity historical development Germany at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. Perception of the French bourgeois revolution. German romantics as the initiators of the European romantic movement, its paradigm. Stages of development of German romanticism. Controversy with Goethe. Brothers Schlegel, Tiek, Novalis, their views in the first half of the 1790s. A turning point in their worldview as a result of the rejection of bourgeois relations. Orientation to the art and philosophy of Christian Europe. Romanticism claimed a universal assessment of the world, covering all areas of human knowledge, all forms of life. The discovery by German romantics of the monuments of ancient Greek literature.

Jena Circle of Romantics (F. Schlegel, A. Schlegel, L. Tieck, Novalis). Communication with idealistic philosophy Fichte and Schelling. Formation of the aesthetics of German romanticism.

Friedrich Hölderlin is one of the greatest figures in German Romantic literature. The mythological nature of the "Tübingen Hymns". Hölderlin's aesthetic views: the concept of nature, the idea of ​​a universal harmonious personality, the "sense of life". Novel

"Hipperion": the tragedy of the image of the protagonist. The tragedy "The Death of Empedocles": the principle of "becoming in disappearance", the theme of eternity, the complexity of the figurative system, the opposition of the romantic ideal and reality.

Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder. "The hearty outpourings of a hermit-lover of the arts": a synthesis of the main artistic and aesthetic trends of the beginning of the century, the concept of nature and natural-organic art. The principle of holistic perception artwork Wackenroder. The role of the artist as a creator of spiritual nature.

"Fantasies about art for friends of art" (Wackenroder and Tieck).

"Sightseeing music life composer Josef Berlinger": the concept of music as a truly romantic art. The problem of comprehension of the traditions of national art.

Friedrich Schlegel is a theorist of German romanticism. Magazine

"Athenaean Fragments". From Enlightenment and Classicism to Romanticism (“On the Study of Greek Poetry”, “On Lessing”). Definition

"progressive universal poetry"; subjective, personal attitude to the world around. Schlegel's doctrine of irony. Idea about

"openness" of all genres and types of art. Theory of the novel. Novel

"Lucinda": theory and practice of art; theme of love in the novel, myth

Plato about androgynes and its embodiment in the novel. The development of reactionary-mystical tendencies in the worldview of F. Schlegel.

Ludwig Tieck is one of the most important representatives of German romanticism. Pre-romantic works of Thicke ("History of Mr. William Lovell"). The novel "The Wanderings of Franz Stenbald. A story from the old German times”: the concept of art and nature in the novel, the system of motives, the principle of art synthesis, the image of the artist as a wanderer. Thika's fantastic novels - "Blond Ekber", "Runenberg". Romantic adaptation of folk books. Tales of Tick and their anti-rationalist orientation. Comedy "Puss in Boots" and

"The World Inside Out": the tradition of destroying theatrical conventions, the embodiment of romantic irony, two types of perception of the world.

Novalis. The evolution of his worldview, interest in the pietistic worldview. Appeal to mysticism: "Hymns to the Night", "Spiritual Songs": incompleteness, fragmentation, openness of the created artistic world. Novalis' system of worldview: the idea of ​​four kingdoms. "Heinrich von Ofterdingen" is a romantic version of an educational novel and a novel about an artist. The connection of the novel with the "new mytho-

logic": the story of " blue flower about the golden age. The experimental orientation of the novel. Synthesis of life and poetry. The article "Christianity and Europe" is a critique of bourgeois development and idealization of the feudal Middle Ages.

Heidelberg Circle of Romantics (Arnim, Brentano, Brothers Grimm). Strengthening social and ideological contradictions during the Napoleonic wars. The growth of national self-consciousness (Fichte "Speeches to the German Nation", J. Gerres "German folk books"). Interest in old German art and the national past of Germany. The problem of nationality: an idealistic and non-historical concept

"folk spirit" (Friedrich von Savigny "The Right of Ownership"). Collection of folk songs by Arnim and Brentano "Magic horn of a boy"; his influence on the further development of German lyrics. Thematic composition of the collection "Children's and Family Tales" by the brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm. The Brothers Grimm are the founders of scientific folklore.

Achim for Arnim is an original novelist (Isabella of Egypt) and the author of two novels (Poverty, Wealth, Guilt and Redemption of the Countess Dolores and The Keepers of the Crown): the problem of the “spiritual” insight of the nation; synthesis of prosaic and poetic beginnings; symbolism; romantic subjectivity.

Clemens Brentano is a prose writer, playwright and an outstanding lyric poet. Simplicity, clarity of form and musicality of Brentano's lyrical works. Loneliness and love theme. Novella

"The Tale of the Glorious Kasperl and the Handsome Annerl": the motive of fatal inevitability, artistic features of the text.

Berlin Romantics. Heinrich von Kleist. Enlightenment and irrational tendencies in his work. The influence of I. Kant's philosophy. The perception of personality as a measure of all things, the theme of discord, bifurcation of the human soul, the non-identity of man to himself in the works of Kleist. "The Shroffenstein Family" - a tragedy of rock "or a psychological drama. Ideological and artistic originality of the tragedy "Pentesilea". Drama "Kathen of Heilbronn". The national-patriotic theme in the dramas "Battle of Herman" and "Prince Friedrich of Hamburg". The image of an ideal monarch. Comedy "The Broken Jug" - a pamphlet on the Prussian legal proceedings; features of Kleist's satire. Kleist novelist. The problem of law and the limits of absolute feeling in the story “Michael Koolhaas. From an old chronicle.

Adelbert von Chamisso. Early Romantic Poems. Genre of fantasy novel Amazing story Peter Schlemil). The theme of the power of gold. Folklore sources, allegorical meaning, the motif of duality in the story. The connection of the ballad lyrics of Chamisso (“Traveling

around the world") with the national liberation movement in Greece and South America. Journal "Almanac of German Muses". Russian theme in Chamisso: the poem "Exiles" and satirical tale"Shemyakin Court".

Joseph von Eichendorff is an outstanding lyric poet and prose writer. His first novel is Premonition and Reality. His highest achievement in prose is the story "From the Life of a Rogue" - the most vivid embodiment of the late Romantic worldview. Genre metamorphosis of the text. The motive of wandering and the parodic-travesty beginning in the story. "Songs of Wanderings" are the artistic features of Eichendorff's lyrical cycle.

Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann is a classic of German literature. Early work(collection "Fantasy in the manner of Callot. Leaflets from the diary of a wandering musician"). Hoffmann in the period of the post-Napoleonic reaction. Duality is the main feature of the worldview and creativity of Hoffmann (Golden Pot). Affirmation of the superiority of art (music) over life ("Cavalier Gluck"). Kreislerian. The problem of the fate of the artist in the feudal-burgher society. Automata people and a romantic hero. different types fiction by Hoffmann. The tradition of the Gothic novel in "Satan's Elixirs": the dark beginning in the world and man, the theme of the stratification of the human "I". The problem of synthesis of arts in the collection of short stories "Night Etudes". Plot and compositional features of the short story "The Sandman". Fairy-tale and folklore theme ("The Nutcracker", "Princess Brambilla"). Grotesque and satirical depiction of everyday reality. "Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober": the problem of the value of a person in a philistine society, the question of essence and visibility. " Worldly views Kota Murr, coupled with fragments of the biography of Kapellmeister Johannes Kreisler, accidentally surviving in waste sheets”: features of the composition of the novel, the ideological and thematic plan of the text. Novel quotation. The irony of Hoffmann. A satire on German society.

Literature of Germany during the Restoration. Political, social, cultural situation in the countries of the German-speaking region after the defeat of the Napoleonic army. Congress of Vienna. Metternich's policy. German Union. idealistic philosophical systems F.V.Y. Schelling and G.W.F. Hegel. Materialistic anthropology of L. Feuerbach. The theory of scientific communism by Karl Marx.

The connection of the literature of this period with previous cultural epochs and artistic traditions. Polarization of the literary context. Aesthetics and Poetics of Biedermeier Literature. The dualistic nature of the concept of "sense of life". The liberal-democratic and revolutionary character of "pre-March literature" (Ludwig Berne). The authors of "Young Germany" (Ferdinand Kue-

not, Ernst Wilkom and others): attitude to the July Revolution in France in 1830, change cultural tradition, the concept of freedom, a new genre variety - "modern novel" or "novel of ideas" (Heinrich Laube "Young Europe", Karl Gutskov "Knights of the Spirit").

"High" Biedermeier - post-romanticism or "early realism". Stylistic and content originality of literary works.

Annette von Droste-Hülshof is a representative of the "conservative" line in Biedermeier literature. Lyric works

"Church Year", "Steppe Paintings", short story "Jewish Beech": stylistic features, ideological and thematic composition of works, figurative system, ethnographic detailing. Synthesis of different genre beginnings in one work.

Eduard Mörike is a Swabian poet and prose writer. Content and style guidelines of his early lyrical works. Subject poems (“To the old picture”, “To the Chinese vase), “To the church

tower", etc.). The novel The Painter Nolten and the short story Mozart on the Way

to Prague: the problem of the relationship of art to reality, the interpretation of the theme of art and the artist, interest in the "night" side of the human soul, elements of fantasy, lyrical inserts. Tales of Mörike ("Stuttgart brownie").

Realism as a literary movement, its chronological framework. The formation of realism in its successive links with romanticism and other literary trends of past centuries. Worldview pillars of realism in various philosophical and sociological doctrines. The picture of the world in the aesthetic concept of realism: concrete historical ideas about man and society; primary focus on current modern life; significance social aspect in the aesthetics of realism; features of everyday life, moral description and psychological analysis in works of realism. Aesthetics of realism in its relation to the Aristotelian principle of imitation. The principle of typification, the dialectics of the general and the particular in realism; the role assigned to the imagination. The category of "beautiful" in realism. Substantiation of the aesthetic principles of realism in the theoretical works of writers. The novel and the story about modern life as the leading genres of realism in literature. The problem of "man and society", the characteristic types of the hero in realistic prose.

Young Germany is a group of German writers and journalists that arose under the influence of the July Revolution in France. Representatives: Karl Gutskov, Ludolf Winbarg, Theodor Mundt, Gustav Kuehne. Socio-political attitudes of the Young Germans: democratic freedoms, class equality, religious tolerance, emancipation of the “flesh”, democratization of education and science. aesthetic views

Young Germans (“Aesthetic Approaches” by Winbarg, “Modern Characteristics” by Laube, “The Art of German Prose” by Mundt). The relationship and mutual influence of everyday life and art, aesthetics and morality. Laube's first political cycle of novels ("Young Europe").

Heinrich Heine - poet, prose writer, publicist, playwright. Heine's creative path. Typically romantic situations as a source of satirical or ironic pathos. "Book of Songs". folk song traditions. Combination of emotion and irony in poetry. early prose: "Travel pictures". The peculiarity of the genre. "Journey through the Harz": prologue and two storylines. "The Book of Legrand": Themes of the French Revolution and Napoleon. "English fragments" as an indicator of the maturation of Heine's political views. Heine and the July Revolution of 1830 Emigration to France.

Political journalism of Heine in the 30s. "French Affairs", "On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany": an analysis of the path of development of German philosophy. "Romantic School". The problem of Heine's attitude to romanticism on different stages his ideological and creative development. Heine's Political Poetry of the 1940s. The poem "Atta Troll": a satire on German philistinism and narrowly biased poetry. The parody structure of the poem. Cycle "Modern Poems". "Germany. Winter's Tale" is a satire on German reality. "Romanzero", its themes, structure, nature of irony. The historical significance of Heine's work.

Christian Dietrich Grabbe - reformer of the German theater

("About Shakespeare Mania"). Grabbe's experimental dramas ("Don Juan and Faust", "Napoleon", "Hannibal"): the conflict between the personal and superpersonal principles, the idea of ​​history, the image of the individualist hero, two stylistic levels of dramatic action, irony, grotesque satirical portraits of the Westphalian nobility, the importance of historical and cultural material in Grabbe's dramaturgy.

The work of Georg Buchner. Saint-Simonist Society of Rights

person." Dramaturgy Buchner. Drama "The Death of Danton": the historical basis of the work, the role of the individual in history, the fatalistic concept of history, the departure from the principles of classical theater. Comedy

"Leons and Lena": the theme of the power of circumstances, psychologism of comedic images, satirical and ironic depiction of modern reality. Philosophical materialism of Buechner in the tragedy Woyzeck. The theme of alienation and isolation of man in the world. Features of the composition and style of Buchner's drama. Short story "Lenz": documentary, internal perspective of the story, the theme of the loss of the integrity of the picture of the world.

Socio-historical processes in Germany in the second half

19th century Literature of the German emigration after 1848 Friedrich Goebbel and

German historical and mythological drama ("Mary Magdalene", "Agnes Bernauer"). Regional tendencies in the literature of 1850-1860 (F. Reiter, T. Storm, V. Raabe). Features of the formation of German

"poetic realism" in the second half of the XIX century. Novel writing by Theodore Storm. Development of the German novel (W. Raabe, T. Fontane). Mass novel in Germany (G. Freytag, F. Shpilhagen). German unification (1871) and German literature. Philosophy of A. Schopenhauer and its perception in the German cultural consciousness. Philosophical and literary creativity of F. Nietzsche. F. Nietzsche and R. Wagner. Socialist literature and criticism in Germany at the end of the 19th century. (F. Mering).

Karl May as a representative of "mass" ("trivial") literature. Interest in exoticism and moralizing. The magazine "Family Wealth" and the first literary experience of K. Maya are works about the adventures of a blond German in the Wild West. Religious issues in his works. Moral and religious novels. Adventure novels: "In the Far West", "Treasure of the Silver Lake",

"A faithful hand is a friend of the Indians." Folklore and criminal-detective foundations of his stories.

Theodor Fontane is the most significant German prose writer of the late 19th century. Circle "Tunnel" and friendship with A. Menzel. National liberation orientation of the novel "Before the Storm". Interpretation of history in Fontane's stories "Grete Minde", "Ellernklipp", "Shah von Wutenow": the image of " little man in big boots. The cycle of "Berlin novels" - "The Sinner", "Cecile", "Stina" - about women's fate and morals in modern society. Poeticization of everyday life in the novel

"Effie Brist". Artistic features of Fontane's novels.

Austrian Literature in the 19th Century. XIX century - the era of "bourgeoisization" of all forms of life. The multinational character of the Austrian state. Catholicism. Historical events: Austria during the Napoleonic Wars, the Holy Alliance, the Tyrolean uprising of 1809, the events of March 1848. Vienna is the largest cultural center in Europe. Entertainment as the main direction of Austrian culture. Austrian literature as an independent national literature. The role of censorship in the formation of Austrian literature. Vienna theatrical art (Burgtheater). The fate of romanticism in Austrian literature. Provincial complex. Preservation of the traditions of past eras: medieval laughter with its universality, baroque allegorism, enlightening faith in the unity and improvement of the human world. Thingness as a special property of Austrian literature. Universalism in the comprehension of life and empiricism in the literature of the end of the century.

Nikolaus Lenau. Multinational origins of his work. Cycle of poems "Walk in the mountains". Features of early poetic texts Lenau: subjectivity, features of a romantic worldview, religious motifs, lyricism, pictures of nature, the theme of hopeless loneliness. A trip to the USA ("Prime Forest", "Niagara",

"Three Indians"). The influence of the ideas of Hegel and Feuerbach. Lenau's poems -

"Faust" and "Savonarola" are the artistic features of these works. “Forest Songs” is a new, deeper understanding of the place of man in nature. Interpretation national history in the poem "The Albigensians". The image of a fighter for the high ideals of mankind. The idea of ​​human happiness in Don Juan. Lenau's lyrics are one of the brightest expressions of the romantic worldview.

Johann Nepomuk Nestroy and the Viennese Biedermeier Comedy Tradition. The tradition of the Austrian folk farce and the Italian comedy of masks. "Expulsion from the Magical World, or Thirty Years of the Life of a Tramp": the social meaning of a dramatic text. Fantastic and realistic in the play "The Evil Spirit Lumpatsivagabundus, or the Reckless Trinity". Social sketches of Nestroy (farce "In the basement and in the mezzanine"). Public theme in the comedy "Freedom in the Bear's Corner".

The work of Franz Grillparzer. "High Tragedy" Grillparzer. Antique and medieval sources of his dramaturgy. "Foremother", her connection with the German romantic "tragedy of rock". "Sappho" and the problem of recognition of the artist in life. History and modern times of Grillparzer in the drama "The Greatness and Fall of King Ottokar". Drama "Libusha" as a historical utopia. Slavic theme. Small prose Grillparzer ("The Poor Musician").

Adalbert Stifter is an outstanding Austrian writer, an adherent of the tradition of Austrian enlightenment rationalism. A special type of story - "Studies": the problem of conscience, duty, human dignity; the beauty of human relationships; concept of nature; pedagogical orientation of Stifter's stories. "Colorful pebbles" and "meek" law. The ideal of an ordinary, modest and not at all heroic human life. The theme of the integration of personality in historical, social, natural processes. The symbolism of "things". Novel of education "Indian Summer": features of the composition and style of the work. Orientation to the classical heritage. Form of organization of human relations. The novel "Vitiko": utopian and historical foundations of the work. The epic nature of the novel space.

Swiss Literature in the 19th Century. The specifics of the development of the history of Switzerland in the era of the Napoleonic wars and after them. The decision of the Congress of Vienna regarding Switzerland. Internal political life:

"Student Union", "Sempach Union" - the basis of socio-political renewal and unification of the country. The idea of ​​neutrality and the union constitution. The politicized nature of Swiss culture in the 19th century. The idea of ​​the need to educate the people (Pestalozzi). Strengthening the role of Catholicism in the formation national culture. Lack of linguistic community.

The unpopularity of romantic concepts among Swiss writers. However, close attention to the national folklore and history of the country, collection and processing of monuments folk culture past (activities of Bodmer, K.V. Bonshtetten, F. Stadler). Collection

"folk songs and poems" G.Ya. Kuna. Rejection of metaphysical and abstract forms in literature (Usteri, Hessa, Hegner). The popularity of small narrative genres, especially the story, its educational and didactic orientation.

The work of the classic of Swiss literature - Gottfried Keller. Active political position writer: the discrepancy between the dream and its real embodiment, between "poetry" and "truth", between the soul, spirit and matter. Lyric works of Keller. Grotesque and poetic realism of the collection "People from Zeldvila". Features of the composition of the collection. The role of the detail and its symbolic meaning. polyphony of the story. The originality of Keller's humor ("Dress makes people"). The novel "Green Heinrich" as a novel of education, a tradition of this genre in German-language literature. The combination of individual fate and the fate of society, which is going through a time of radical change. Artistic features of the text: built-in stories, allegorical passages, numerous digressions, etc. The symbolism of the novel's finale. Meaning of the title of the novel. A series of historical paintings ("Zurich novels"). The mythological basis of the collection "Seven Legends". Multi-layered and multifaceted narration in the "Saying" cycle: motifs from folk tales, biblical and ancient mythology, topics of chivalric novels, romantic motifs. The experience of social analysis in the novel "Martin Salander".

(early 1830s - 1847)

Thackeray's early work characterized by searches in the field of narration. He creates stories, writes poetry. He also acts as an artist, illustrating his works. As a satirist Thackeray became interested in such a genre as parody. He very well felt the costs of any genre, and especially genres romantic literature, popular in some circles, for example, in women's.

So he created a cycle of parodies of famous romantic authors called "Novels of famous writers" (Cooper, Dumas père, Walter Scott, etc.).

« The Book of Snobs" (1846-1847).

The concept itself "snob "was widely known in England back in 18th century. It signified the swagger and arrogance of the English landed aristocracy. As a slang word, it was used by Cambridge students : "snob" as a poor student . And the student newspaper in which Thackeray collaborated had the same name.

In 19th century culture the word "snob" already meant greed, hypocrisy, hypocrisy and arrogance in general. IN "Book of snobs » it applies to absolutely everyone, from the monarch to the servants (52 essays). Thus, this concept is interpreted by the writer as both a national and a universal quality.

Snob, according to Thackeray, - “This is a frog that wants to swell up to the size of a bull…”. Even in himself, Thackeray found this quality.

"Vanity Fair" (1847-1848) -

opens new page in the history of English literature in the 19th century. Novel innovation:

Title is symbolic. In Thackeray's time, the titles of works were most often associated with stories or the names of characters. The title of Thackeray's novel is borrowed from an allegorical novel English writer 17th century John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. During your journey main character This novel goes to a vanity fair, or rather, according to the translation, to the "bazaar of worldly vanity", where everything is sold for money: titles, ranks, positions, even love.

This is the first allegorical designation of modern venal England. There is also a second content of Vanity Fair - This allegorical image human life in general ("vanity of vanities - all vanity").

In terms of genre – This is a novel that has absorbed a large number of genre varieties: an upbringing novel (the story of the life of two heroines), a review novel, or a panorama novel (the private lives of heroes determined not by happy accidents, but by specific historical events), family romance (family theme: Sedley, Osborne, Crowley families); picaresque romance (the story of Becky Sharp - her red hair as a sign of cheating); A as well as a satirical, socio-psychological, philosophical novel.

The composition of the novel is based on the principles of the enlightenment novel.

First, there is the Puppeteer, who addresses the reader. He puts on the mask of the Dollmaker to voice the well-known Shakespearean metaphor: “Life is a game, a theater, and we are all actors in it.”

He presents his dolls, who will become the main characters of the novel: “here ... the famous Becky doll, which showed extraordinary dexterity in the joints and turned out to be very agile on the wire; the Emilia doll, although it won a much more limited circle of admirers, is nevertheless finished by the artist and dressed up with the greatest diligence; Dobbin's figure, albeit clumsy in appearance, dances most amusingly ... "; there is also the figure of the Unholy Nobleman… The puppeteer promises to show “the most diverse spectacles”: bloody battles… scenes of military life… love episodes, as well as comic ones…. Around the Dollmaker is a humming Fair, which he looks at "with feeling deep sadness... "" Here they eat and drink without any measure, fall in love and change, who cries and who rejoices; here they fight and dance ... "that is, an image of Life is created.

The puppeteer tells us that the main character in the novel is the fair. In the novel, the game beginning is clearly expressed.

But, besides the Dollmaker, there is also an ironic Author who introduces himself How "the author who knows everything" and at the same time as "an author who knows nothing." What does the second definition mean? The author cannot know everything, because life is unpredictable. After all, one day a tragic accident can destroy it. This is a realistic approach.

The novel has an intriguing subtitle "A novel without a hero" Why such a subtitle? The hero's problem was very relevant in Victorian England.

We must keep in mind the following circumstance: the novel is intended primarily for ma'am . As you know, they almost always have their own idea. about the main character as the perfect hero (remember Madame Bovary). It must be a character who goes through many trials while maintaining his best qualities. This is a romantic perception of reality.

By the time the novel was written, Thackeray himself had developed his own views on man.

A fan of Cervantes, 18th century English literature, and especially Fielding, he believed that “Man is a mixture of the heroic and the ridiculous, the noble and the base.” The character of a person, according to Thackeray, is formed under the influence of the following circumstances:

- its origin; innate qualities; the influence of the circumstances of his life.

Prepare an answer to the question: Which of the characters can be called a hero and which hero? Only three heroes can claim this role - Becky Sharp, Emilia Sedley and Dobbin.

German literature of the mid-19th century

Compared with France and England, Germany was still the most politically and economically backward state in Western Europe. During the period under review, it was a feudal state consisting of 38 (36) territories: 2 territories were disputed. Only in 1815, after the fall of Napoleon, these territories were united in the so-called "German Union".

After the end of the Napoleonic occupation in Germany, a monarchical regime is established, which is commonly called Restoration regime . Not to be confused with the French restoration: in Germany, this is a period of recovery after the occupation, a return to peaceful life, stability, and order.

But the German intelligentsia dreams of a political renewal of the country. Therefore, the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in France were enthusiastically received in Germany. In March 1848, an attempt was even made to commit in Germany "March Revolution" but due to the weakness of the progressive forces, it collapsed.

In connection with these events in the literature Germany develops its own problems and its own system of genres.

For example, the novel as the most important genre of literature of the 19th century was not widely developed in Germany. Why? In order for a novel with a new content to appear, a new era was needed, significant changes in the life of the country. And the existing order caused only criticism.

Those novels that appeared in this period in Germany were largely imitations of the French or English novel.

The prose of this period in Germany develops mainly in small genres - these are short stories and short stories.

On the other hand, drama and poetry, genres that provided an opportunity to emotionally and journalistically reflect the existing reality, are widely used in German literature.

It should be noted that German literature of the middle of the century has largely lost the world significance that it had in previous decades.

By this time, two literary currents were taking shape in German literature.

First - "poetic realism" (1848-1871). This is literature that has been created predominantly by politically and aesthetically liberal and conservative writers, predominantly prose.

Second - "Pre-March Literature" (1840s), that is, the literature preceding the March Revolution of 1848 and produced by writers of both liberal-democratic and revolutionary tendencies. This is mainly - social lyrics, journalism, dramaturgy. Thus, we can talk about "duality" ("bidirectionality") of German literature and culture of the period under study.

"Poetic realism"

The term "poetic realism" belongs to the German writer Otto Ludwig. In his interpretation, "Poetic realism" is a combination in literature of the real and the ideal, the natural and the random, the individual and the typical, the objective content of life and the subjective content of the author. .

Real- in the depiction of reality in its causal relationships, in the social, national and historical determinism of characters, in a huge role in the narration of the details of the outside world.

Ideal - it is a return to romantic ideas and ideals that appeared in literature after 1848 in a new quality and in new forms.