Abstract Russian culture of the Enlightenment. Peter's reform

Such transformations were facilitated by the development of the Russian, Naryshkin baroque, which played a unifying role already in the culture of the 17th century. The architecture of Russian classicism is developing as a realization of the task of creating a holistic spatial equivalent Russian Empire. Urban planning begins on the new principles of programmatic Europeanism, ensemble and incorporation into environment. The formation of the urban culture of modern Russia begins.

Finally, Peter laid Petersburg as the capital of Russia of the new time, an open city, which is characterized by regular planning, solemnity and festivity of space, determined by the new official culture, the scale of avenues, turning into the boundlessness of Russia's roads. Dominants of the new Russian city are taking shape. Moscow and other cities are being reconstructed in the era of the Russian Enlightenment.
Russian painting occupies a special place in the culture of the Enlightenment: there is a rapid change in content and language during the 18th century. At the seminar envisaged on this topic, it is necessary to trace the evolution of the portrait as an expression of the growth of personal self-consciousness in the works of Nikitin, Levitsky, Rokotov, Borovikovsky.
Thus, the formation of an integral secular artistic culture of Russia in the Enlightenment is being carried out.
Control questions:

1. What is the difference between secular art and religious art?
2. What new types of art appear in Russia XVIII century?
3. What are the signs of St. Petersburg as the new European capital of Russia?

Culture in the Age of Enlightenment

Introduction

1. Enlightenment from a general point of view

1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment

1.2 Age of Reason

2. Enlightenment in Russia

2.1 The penetration of the ideas of the Enlightenment into Russia

2.2 Enlightenment in Russian conditions

2.2.1 Catherine II: Culture and Enlightenment

2.3 Ideas of the Enlightenment and Russian Orthodoxy

2.4 Enlightenment ideas and patriotism

3. The most famous educators

3.1 Russia. Radishchev

3.2 Russia: Novikov

3.3 France: Voltaire

3.3.1 Literary creativity. Dramaturgy

3.3.2 Literary creation: Poetry

3.4 Germany: Goethe

Conclusion

List of used literature

Application

Introduction

The 18th century in world culture has left its mark on history and is called the "epoch of enlightenment".

In this era, the direction of fantastic forms - "baroque" - ends, and the persecution of humanists 1 begins. From that time on, cultural figures have a double life (1st life - a secret search for a new one with the power of imagination and 2nd - an obvious life like everyone else). In literature, the main work of this time is the novel by the Spanish writer Calderon "Life is a dream".

In Europe, a war is born between the educated authorities and the poorly educated population, which has become active thanks to books. This war leads to the creation of the first bourgeois republic in Holland. And here it becomes necessary for all monarchies to defend themselves against the influence of republics. For example, in France, the largest kingdom in Europe, the de facto ruler Cardinal Richelieu publishes uniform requirements for art: to educate the citizens of the kingdom according to the models of the heroes of antiquity. And from the rules of Richelieu, a new direction of classicism appears. From the 2nd half of the 17th century until the end of the 18th century, the idea of ​​enlightenment (education of the people by art) won in Europe.

So, what is the "age of enlightenment"? On what personalities is it built? And how did it change people's minds? You will find answers to these and other questions in the following topics.

1. Enlightenment in terms of history

The Enlightenment is a broad cultural movement in Europe and North America in the 18th century, which aimed to spread the ideals scientific knowledge, political freedoms, social progress and the exposure of relevant prejudices and superstitions. The centers of the ideology and philosophy of the Enlightenment were France, Germany and England (where it originated). The ideology of the Enlightenment received its concentrated expression in France during the period from 1715 to 1789, called the Age of Enlightenment (siecle des lumieres). Kant's definition of the Enlightenment as "the courage to use one's own mind" speaks of the fundamental orientation of the Enlightenment to endow the mind with the status of the highest authority and the associated ethical responsibility of its bearers - enlightened citizens.

The ideas of the Enlightenment had a significant impact on the development of social thought. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries the ideology of the Enlightenment was often criticized for idealizing human nature, an optimistic interpretation of progress as the steady development of society based on the improvement of the mind. In a broad sense, educators were called outstanding disseminators of scientific knowledge.

1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment

Despite all the national peculiarities, the Enlightenment had several common ideas and principles. There is a single order of nature, on the knowledge of which not only the success of the sciences and the well-being of society, but also moral and religious perfection are based; the correct reproduction of the laws of nature makes it possible to build natural morality, natural religion, and natural law. Reason freed from prejudice is the only source of knowledge; facts, the essence is the only material for the mind. Rational knowledge must free humanity from social and natural slavery; society and the state must harmonize with the external nature and nature of man. Theoretical knowledge is inseparable from practical action that ensures progress as the highest goal of social existence.

The specific ways of implementing this program within the framework of the Enlightenment diverged significantly. The difference in opinions about religion was especially significant: the practical atheism of 2 La Mettrie, Holbach, Helvetius and Diderot, the rationalistic anti-clerical deism of 3 Voltaire, the moderate deism of d'Alembert, the pious deism of Condillac, the emotional "deism of the heart" of Rousseau. The unifying moment was hatred of the traditional church At the same time, the deism of the Enlightenment did not exclude such organizational forms as the Masonic 4 quasi-church 5 with its rituals. Epistemological 6 differences were less diverse: in general, the enlighteners adhered to empiricism 7 of the Lockean persuasion with an emphatically sensationalist interpretation of the origin of knowledge. materialistic character, but a skeptical and even spiritualistic variant was not ruled out.Ontology 9 was of less interest to the Enlightenment: they left the solution of these problems to specific sciences (in this regard, the philosophy of the Enlightenment can be considered the first version of positivism 10), fixing only the evidence of the existence of the subject, nature and God - root causes. Only in Holbach's "System of Nature" is a dogmatic picture of atomistic-material being given. In the social sphere, the enlighteners tried to substantiate the theory of progress and connect it with the stages of the economic and political development of society. Economic (Turgot), political (Montesquieu), human rights (Voltaire) ideas of the Enlightenment played a significant role in the formation of the liberal civilization of the modern West.

1.2 Age of Reason

The years of Defoe's life (1660-1731) coincided with the time of the rapid development of science, which literally interrupted all the ideas of medieval man about the world around him. During the 16-18 centuries. geographical discoveries constantly expanded the horizons of the European: the world was growing rapidly. If in the 15th century the well-known lands in Europe stretched from India to Ireland, then by the beginning of the 19th century the Spaniards, the British, the Dutch, the French owned the whole world. The streak of outstanding discoveries started by Nicolaus Copernicus was continued by the works of Isaac Newton, who formulated the law of universal gravitation. As a result of their labors, by the end of the 17th century. the former picture of the world has become yesterday even in the eyes of the inhabitants: the Earth - the biblical center, the universe - has turned from the center of the universe into one of the few satellites of the sun; the Sun itself turned out to be only one of the stars that complement the infinite Cosmos.

Thus was born the science of modern times. It broke the traditional connection with theology and proclaimed experiment, mathematical calculation and logical analysis as its foundations. This led to the emergence of a new worldview, in which the concepts of "reason", "nature", "natural law" became the main ones. From now on, the world was seen as a gigantic complex mechanism operating according to the exact laws of mechanics (it is no coincidence that a mechanical watch was a favorite image in the writings of statesmen and politicians, biologists and doctors in the 17th and early 18th centuries). In such a well-oiled system, there was little room for God. He was assigned the role of the initiator of the world, the root cause of all things. The world itself, as if having received a push, further developed independently, in accordance with the natural laws that the Creator created universal, unchanging and accessible to knowledge. This doctrine was called deism, had many followers among the naturalists of the 17th-18th centuries.

But perhaps the most important step that the new philosophy ventured into was the attempt to extend the laws of nature to human society. A conviction appeared and grew stronger: both the man himself and public life subject to immutable natural laws. They only need to be discovered, written down, to achieve an accurate and universal performance. A way was found to create a perfect society built on "reasonable" foundations - a guarantee of the future happiness of mankind.

The search for the natural laws of the development of society contributed to the emergence of new teachings about man and the state. One of them is the theory of natural law, developed by European philosophers of the 17th century. T. Hobbes and D. Locke. They proclaimed the natural equality of people, and therefore the natural right of every person to property, freedom, equality before the law, human dignity. Based on the theory of natural law, a new view of the origin of the state was also taking shape. The English philosopher Locke believed that the transition of once free people to "civil society" is the result of a "social contract" concluded between peoples and rulers. The latter, according to Locke, are given some of the "natural rights" of fellow citizens (justice, external relations, etc.). Rulers are obliged to protect other rights - freedom of speech, belief and the right to private property. Locke denied the divine origin of power: monarchs must remember that they are part of "civil society."

A whole era began in the history of Western culture, bringing with it a new understanding of the world and man, profoundly different from the medieval one. It was called the Age of Enlightenment - after the name of a powerful ideological current, which by the middle of the 18th century. widely covered European and American countries. In the 18-19 centuries. it had a strong influence on science, socio-political thought, art and literature of many peoples. That is why the 18th century went down in history as the Age of Reason, the Age of Enlightenment.

This movement was represented by prominent philosophers, scientists, writers, statesmen and public figures different countries. Among the enlighteners were aristocrats, nobles, priests, lawyers, teachers, merchants and industrialists. They could hold different, sometimes opposing views on certain issues, belong to different faiths or deny the existence of God, be staunch republicans or supporters of easy restriction of the monarchy. But all of them were bound by a common goal and ideals, a belief in the possibility of creating a just society in a peaceful, non-violent way. "Enlightenment of minds", the purpose of which is to open people's eyes to the reasonable principles of organizing society, to advance their world and themselves - this is the essence of the Enlightenment and the main meaning of the activities of enlighteners.

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1 . SecularizationRussian culture in konttext of Peter's transformations

enlightenment artistic culture secularization

Secularization, anti-Christian policy of Russian emperors of the XVIII century. (primarily Peter I, and Catherine II), aimed at weakening the spiritual influence of the Orthodox Church and the conversion of its property into secular property. Great mistake Peter I was the reorganization of the life of the Russian people in the German way, which was all imbued with churchliness, since our ancestors before Peter, according to the church and monastery charter, distributed the time of their lives, and everything regarding their clothing, social etiquette and mutual relations of family members, wore on itself the seal of religion and was considered Orthodox, in contrast to the "basurman" - heretical. But this mistake became even more grave and even disastrous for Russia, due to the fact that Peter in his reforms made a breakdown of our Orthodox faith on the basis of his obvious sympathies for Protestantism.

In the same year, on March 28, Peter issued a decree that aroused great excitement in Moscow. This decree forbade the building of chapels at marketplaces and crossroads, in villages and other places, and the performance of divine services before icons by priests. In one of his decrees to the Synod, Peter also limits other manifestations of the religiosity of the Russian people, “because all hope,” it says here, “is put on church singing, fasting, bows and the like, in them the structure of churches, candles and incense.” According to such views, Peter issued a regulation, which set out the rules regarding the religious education of the people and which is a biting satire on the religiosity of our ancestors. Guided by these regulations, the Synod issued a decree against rituals, religious processions, walking with images, expensive salaries for icons, the multiplication of chapels, the annual storage of artos, Epiphany water, etc. Even more pernicious for Russian piety were Peter's measures aimed at reforming our monasteries, which were expressed in his decree of January 31, 1724. This patristic teaching found its best embodiment in the life of pre-Petrine Russia, when the ideal of Russian piety and the leaders of the moral and Christian life of the Russian people were monks. This is not how Peter looked at monasticism. Giving praise to the original monasteries of deep antiquity for their industriousness, he says in the mentioned decree that a hundred years after the beginning of this rank, the monks became lazy, parasites and depraved. Here the multiplication of monasteries in Constantinople and in the places near it is rarely condemned, which turned out to be the reason for the amazing small number of soldiers who were so needed during the siege.

According to Peter, the monks do not stand at the height of their vocation, they eat free bread and there is no profit from this society. Therefore, he demands that in Russian monasteries there be charitable institutions for elderly soldiers and that seminaries be set up, from where educated pupils seeking monasticism for the bishopric could be tonsured when they reach the age of 30. And shortly before his death, the sovereign issued a decree that the Moscow monasteries were intended for the sick, the old and the crippled, for the abandoned babies. In general, the number of monks in Russia under Peter was very limited, they were constrained special rules, and the monasteries themselves were mostly turned into almshouses. The main evil, and, moreover, for all of Russia, consisted here in the fact that Peter took away from the monasteries and in general from the Russian Church its property. The latter were gifts that were brought by believers to the Church in fulfillment of the Divine commandment: to give the Lord a tithe from their estates. This church property was divine property and therefore was assigned to the Church of St. canons as inviolable and inalienable. Russian grand dukes and tsars have always protected church property from seizure with their spells. Thus, in the statute, those who seize the revenues of the Church are offered a curse. So did other princes, and kings, and in general church benefactors. It is clear that taking church property into other hands is the gravest sin of violating the Divine commandment and St. canons, brings down terrible curses both in this and in next century from church benefactors is, in essence, sacrilege. The disastrous consequences of this sin were not slow to show themselves even during the life of Peter. The monasteries in Russia not only taught the Russian people the life of their true monks, but also illuminated them with true Christian enlightenment. Turning them into charitable institutions, Peter thereby destroyed the basis for the true enlightenment of Russia. This was achieved in particular by taking away the monastic and hierarchal property when Peter renewed the Monastic Order on January 24, 1701. Through this Order, Peter, by abolishing the patriarchate, deprived the Church of its independence and the means for acquiring books and school institutions for the enlightenment of the Russian people. Thus, the taking away of church property was a great evil for all of Russia, for the latter was deprived of true, ecclesiastical and patriotic enlightenment, which the Church spread thanks to its rich means. The disastrous effect of this reform at the same time, precisely in the fact that, due to a lack of church funds, excellent schools began to close at the hierarch's cathedras. One of these schools was the exemplary seminary of St. Demetrius in Rostov. The impoverishment of the bishop's house of St. Dmitry reached such an extent that not only was it impossible for him to maintain his school, but there was nothing to give to the beggar. This circumstance, in connection with the troubles caused to Saint Dmitry by the stolnik sent from the Monastic Order, as well as some of Peter’s reforms directed against the Church, prompted Saint Dmitry to turn to the Metropolitan of Ryazan with a letter in which he wrote to him, as his friend, “so many iniquities, so many insults, so many oppressions cry out to heaven and stir up the wrath and vengeance of God. Unfortunately, the Orthodox faith was destroyed not only by Peter's reforms, but also by his personal behavior. Peter's anti-church activity could not remain without protest from our hierarchy, and above all from its head, the last Patriarch Adrian. There was a deep strife between him and Peter. He sharply condemned the innovations introduced by the tsar, but soon, to the displeasure of the people, he was forced to shut up, especially after the sadness of the patriarch for the disgraced archers, which Peter did not like. After the death of the patriarch, the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, friend of St. Dmitry of Rostov, Metropolitan of Ryazan Stefan Yavorsky, openly protested against Peter in defense of the Orthodox faith and the main order and way of life in Russia. Metropolitan Stefan was a man of great talents, a great mind, and a brilliant European education. Courageous, noble, frank, he told the truth to Peter, surrounded by Protestants. For this, the king hated Stephen as his implacable staunch enemy. Peter, although he himself exalted him, was so at odds with him that he began to avoid meeting him. However, such an attitude of Peter towards Metropolitan Stefan did not leave the last of the protests that he filed with the tsar against innovations in the spiritual life of the Russian people, despite the fact that these protests fell on his own head, calling the royal wrath against him. He was not even afraid to openly denounce Peter in his sermons.

By order of the king, a decree was issued on non-observance of posts in the regiments, one soldier was tried because, contrary to the will of his superiors, he did not want to break the post. Of course, such a negative Lutheran attitude towards the Orthodox faith could not be reconciled with the majority of the bishops of our Church, whose protests against Peter provoked terrible terror against them on his part. As a result of Peter's anti-church reforms in the life of Russian people, there was a cooling towards the Orthodox faith and all the external forms of its manifestation. Freethinkers multiplied, condemning, on Protestant principles, Orthodox ritualism. More contemporary petru Russian educated society, imbued with European Protestant views, began to be ashamed of its former childish and ingenuous religiosity and tried to hide it, especially since it was openly judged from the height of the throne and by authorities. But even this does not exhaust the evil that Peter inflicted on Russia. The Russian Church could successfully combat the absence of Russian people from the Orthodox faith on the basis of Protestinism through school education. But Peter took property away from the Church. Because of this, the enlightenment of the Russian people was not introduced by the Church, it was not spread on the original historical principles of our Orthodox faith, it even introduced negative attitude to faith, and therefore the death of Russia was concealed in itself. Unfortunately, not immediately after Peter the Great did our emperors, who were the patrons of the Orthodox faith and its defenders not only for Russia, but also for other Orthodox countries, begin to lead Russia. The Russian people had to go through a series of profound upheavals in their faith even after Peter the Great.

The synod sentenced Metropolitan Arseny to deprivation of the hierarchal rank and tradition, after removal from monasticism, to a secular court, which was supposed to condemn him to death for insulting Her Majesty. But the empress ordered to release the subway Arseny from the secular court, leave him monasticism and exile him to a distant monastery.

Catherine II fulfilled all the requirements of external piety, admired the sermons of Metropolitan Platon, kissed the hands of the clergy, went to religious processions, however, did not have an Orthodox attitude and valued religion, like Peter, solely from the point of view of its political significance - its benefit to the state. It was especially bad that she bowed, and even excessively, before the atheist Voltaire, fawned over him and consulted with him in her plans regarding certain reforms for Russia. Hence, it was natural for her to appoint such non-Orthodox persons as the Masons Melissino and Chebyshev to the post of Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod. The first of them suggested that the synod should provide the synodal deputy for a meeting in the Commission of the Code with such proposals regarding reforms in church life: weaken and shorten the fasts, destroy the veneration of icons and holy relics, prohibit the wearing of images from home, reduce church services to avoid pagan polyphony in prayer, cancel drawn up in later times stichera, canons, troparia, appoint short prayers with teachings for the people instead of Vespers and All-Night Vigils, stop the maintenance of monks, allow the election of bishops from priests without tonsure to monasticism, with permission for bishops to lead a married life, allow the clergy to wear the “decent dress”, cancel the commemoration deceased, to allow marriage more than 3 times and to prohibit the communion of infants under the age of ten. The Holy Synod rejected this proposal and drew up its mandate. Thus, if under Peter the Russian Church had to suffer hard from Protestantism, then under Catherine II the Church experienced strong pressure not only from Protestantism, but also from unbelief. But Catherine II inflicted a particularly heavy blow on the Church through the final selection of monastic estates for the treasury and the introduction of monastic states. Due to this reform, which was detrimental to the Church, 754 of the 954 monasteries that had previously existed were closed; consequently, only a fifth of them remained in Russia. When taking away church estates, a promise was made to provide theological schools and the clergy, but it was not fulfilled by the state authorities. In addition, the latter did not receive much benefit from this reform, since a huge part of the monastic estates was distributed by the empress as a gift to her favorites. It is clear what a painful blow to the hearts of believing Russian people this reform was. The places illuminated by the deeds of the holy monks were deserted. The path along which the masses went to the holy elders for spiritual guidance, to the holy graves - for prayers, was overgrown. Many schools, hospitals and almshouses were closed at churches and monasteries. Together with the closure of the monasteries, the great work of enlightening foreigners in Siberia and other places in vast Russia also stopped. Popular feeling was too indignant, for the taking away of church property was a blatant violation of property rights and the will of those who bequeathed their estates to churches and monasteries for the deeds of charity, for maintenance, monasticism and for the remembrance of the soul. This reform was in the eyes of the people a great sin, for donations to churches and monasteries, as mentioned above, the Church has always regarded as consecrated to God. Therefore, contemporaries of this sad phenomenon in the life of the Church could not but protest. The sharpest protest came from Arseniy, Metropolitan of Rostov. His personality evoked and still evokes deep respect for himself, as he fearlessly always defended his just cause. But he remained unforgettable for the Russian Church mainly for his speech against the taking away of church property. In connection with this sad event, Metropolitan Arseniy filed one protest after another with the Synod. In the week of Orthodoxy, he added an anathema to the usual anathematizations of "offenders of churches and monasteries." All these actions of Metropolitan Arseny were brought to the attention of Catherine. An investigation into the case of Metropolitan Arseny was appointed in the Synod. The latter was summoned to the palace, where he was interrogated in the presence of the empress herself. Metropolitan Arseniy spoke so harshly that the empress covered her ears, and his own mouth was "riveted." Catherine ordered the Synod itself to judge her brother.

2 . osOBenefits of the "Russian Enlightenment"

The Russian Enlightenment inherited the problems of the European Enlightenment, comprehended and developed it in a completely original way, in the context of the unique historical situation that developed in Russian society at that time.

According to the enlighteners, the greatness of man, his difference from other creatures generated by nature, lies in the mind. A person endowed with reason is able to work creatively, thereby ensuring the progress of mankind. This admiration of man as the most perfect creation of nature is characteristic of all enlightenment thought. But it sounds especially bright in the ode “Man” by I.P. Pnin (1773-1805), educator, poet, follower of A.N. Radishchev. This is a kind of hymn to his greatness, to those deeds, by performing which a person overcomes a slave in himself.

Enlighteners create a special moral philosophy, with the help of which they determine the basic principles of ethics, the behavior of people in society. The main provisions of moral philosophy are set out in the work of A.P. Kunitsyn (1783-1840) "Natural Law". Morality in this work is considered as a natural manifestation of human nature. Russian enlighteners thought about why freethinking, as a deep human need, is realized with such difficulty in real conditions. Freedom or love of freedom is considered by Russian enlighteners as an absolute value. Without freedom, a person cannot exist, all his actions are dictated by the desire to gain freedom.

A huge place in the works of Russian enlighteners was given to the reorganization of society. The goal of a free society, according to enlighteners, is the well-being of citizens. “The state is only happy when it is loved by its compatriots,” wrote A.F. Bestuzhev (1761-1810), father of the Decembrists, the Bestuzhev brothers. Living in a society based on freedom and happiness, a person should be its worthy citizen. Therefore, the interest of educators in the problem of personality education was enormous. This topic is devoted to the tract of A.F. Bestuzhev "On Education", published in the "St. Petersburg Journal", which he published together with I.P. Pnin.

The philosophical and anthropological thought of the Russian Enlighteners was distinguished by considerable diversity, depth and originality. It covered a wide range of political, ideological and moral problems and such an acute problem of Russian reality as the situation of the peasants.

The beginning of the development of enlightenment in Russia was laid by M.V. Lomonosov, through whose efforts the university in Moscow was opened.

The ideas of enlightenment have found wide distribution in Russian literature - in the works of D.I. Fonvizina, G.R. Derzhavin, V.K. Trediakovsky, in Russian painting - in the canvases of F.S. Rokotova, D.G. Levitsky.

Herald of revolutionary sentiments in Russia A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802) in his works (ode "Liberty", "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow") reflected a wide range of ideas of Russian education and, above all, a sharp denunciation of autocracy and serfdom.

The largest representative of the Russian enlightenment - N.I. Novikov (1744-1818), publicist, publisher of satirical magazines, organizer of printing houses, libraries, bookstores (in 16 cities). The books he published covered all branches of knowledge.

The autocracy dealt cruelly with the enlighteners. Radishchev's book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" was confiscated and banned (only in 1905 a new edition was published), and the author himself was sent into exile. He was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress and Novikov.

Diversity of enlighteners united common goals and ideas, was a prerequisite for exceptional fruitfulness from creative activity. In endless disputes between them, modern concepts of human and civil rights, civil society and pluralistic democracy, the rule of law and the separation of powers were born, market economy and ethics of individualism. The people of many countries have paid dearly for attempts to neglect this heritage.

The eighteenth century also prepared the way for the dominance of bourgeois culture. The old, feudal ideology was replaced by the time of philosophers, sociologists, economists, writers of the new century - the Enlightenment. The aesthetic innovation of the century manifested itself not only in the desire to break or even reconstruct traditional forms, but in the creation of some other forms that exist in the everyday life of tradition and, as it were, independently of it.

3 . Stor and directions in Russian artistic culture XVIIIV.

European art of the XVIII century. Combined classicism and romanticism. Romanticism, which arose in an atmosphere permeated with the ideas of the Enlightenment, revolutionary events, put the imagination, emotionality and creative spirituality of the artist at the forefront. Using the old stylistic forms of classicism, the art of the Enlightenment reflected with the help of a completely different content. In the art of different countries and peoples, classicism and romanticism sometimes form a kind of synthesis, sometimes they exist in all sorts of combinations and mixtures.

An important new beginning in the art of the XVIII century. There was also the emergence of currents that did not have their own stylistic form and did not feel the need to develop it. Such a major culturological trend was, first of all, sentimentalism, which fully reflected the enlightenment ideas about the original purity and kindness of human nature, which are lost along with the distance of society from nature. In diaries, novels, letters, poems, sentimentalist writers analyzed the subtlest shades of their own feelings and moods.

European art of the 18th century. There was another direction - rococo. It is characterized by lightness, grace, sophistication and whimsical ornamental rhythm. All Rococo art is built on asymmetry, which creates a sense of unease - a playful, mocking, artsy, teasing feeling.

It is no coincidence that the origin of the term "rococo" is traced back to the French word "roycaille" (diamond and shell decoration), denoting a style of interior decoration based on S-shaped bends and spiral shapes. Rococo became the leading art movement in France in the 18th century and then became widespread in Europe, especially in churches and palaces in southern Germany and Austria.

The development of European art of the XVIII century. Difficult and uneven. In Italy, the highest achievements are associated with the Venetian school. In France, an evolution can be traced from Rococo to the art of a program-civil orientation. In the arts, and especially in the literature of England, the characteristic features of realism were already emerging. The young Goya (1746-1828) in Spain promoted the romanticism of the new century with all his work.

The most valuable heritage of the XVIII century. The foundations of aesthetics and art history, laid down in it, appeared as a truly scientific discipline, the development of which is closely connected with the successes of philosophy.

4 . RUsskoe artXVIIIcentury

In the XVIII century. is undergoing change and art- painting, sculpture, etc. This is the heyday of portraiture. art line Russian portraiture retained its originality, but at the same time absorbed Western traditions.

Most famous artists Petrine era - A. Matveev (1701-1739) and I. Nikitin (c. 1690-1742) - the founders of Russian secular painting. They studied painting skills abroad. Portraits of Matveev are marked by ease of poses and truthfulness of characteristics. He owns the first self-portrait in Russian art - "Self-portrait with his wife". He sought in his portraits to convey characteristic individual traits models, expressiveness of depicted objects I. Nikitin. In the portraits "Outdoor Hetman" and "Peter I on his deathbed" he was far ahead of his contemporaries in depth and form of artistic expression.

The appearance of the portrait in the Petrine era was, according to academician I.E. Grabar, "one of the main factors that decided the fate of Russian painting."

By the end of the 20s. there has been a turning point towards the court direction in painting. It was a time of intensive development of the personality, which was reflected in the work of the best portrait painters of the 18th century. - Antropov, Rokotov, Levitsky, Borovikovsky, sculptors Shubin and Kozlovsky.

Portraits of A.P. Antropova (1716-1795), although they still retained a connection with the parsuna, they are distinguished by the veracity of the characteristics of the human personality (portrait of Peter III).

Subtle in painting and deeply poetic portraits of F. Rokotov (1735-17808) are imbued with an awareness of the spiritual and physical beauty of a person (“Unknown Woman in a Pink Dress”, “Portrait of V.E. Novosiltseva”).

The largest portrait painter of that time D.T. Levitskaya (1735-1822) created a magnificent series of ceremonial portraits - from a portrait of Catherine II to portraits of Moscow merchants. In his canvases, solemnity is combined with colorful richness. Vitality, charm are filled with his female portraits, especially Smolensk women - pupils of the Smolny Institute.

Creativity V.L. Borovikovsky (1757-1825) is distinguished by a combination of decorative delicacy and elegance with a faithful transmission of character. He paints a portrait against a soft landscape. Wonderful is his lyrical portrait of a charming young woman M.I. Lopukhina.

Famous sculptor F. Shubin (1740-1805), countryman M.V. Lomonosov, a Kholmogory peasant. At the age of 19, a talented young man went to St. Petersburg. At first he was a stoker, and then a student of the Academy of Arts, he improved his skills abroad. Shubin created a gallery of psychologically expressive sculptural portraits - busts of A.M. Golitsyna, M.R. Panina, I.G. Orlova, M.V. Lomonosov.

The classical direction was represented by the sculptor and draftsman M. Kozlovsky (1753-1802). His work is imbued with the ideas of the Enlightenment, sublime humanism, and vivid emotionality. This was especially clearly expressed in the sculptural group for the cascade of fountains in Peterhof "Samson tearing apart the mouth of a lion" - an allegory personifying the victory of Russia over Sweden. His nephew A.V. is interesting. Suvorov (in the form of Mars) in St. Petersburg.

The famous French sculptor E.M. Falcone (1716-1791) came to Russia specifically for the construction of a monument to Peter I. He worked on the monument "The Bronze Horseman" for 12 years. The opening of the monument on Senate Square took place in 1782. bronze horseman"The image of the creator, the transformer is embodied: the rearing horse is pacified by the firm hand of the mighty rider. The monument has become a symbol of the city on the Neva.

IN late XVIII V. one of the richest art collections in the world, the Hermitage, is being created. It is based on the private collections of paintings by Western European masters acquired by Catherine II. Performances and musical evenings were also arranged in the Hermitage. Inventive art of the XVIII century. made a significant step forward in the development of the secular direction.

5 . RURussian literatureXVIIIcentury

The book publishing business flourished. In 1708-1710. a font reform was carried out, simplifying the complex Cyrillic alphabet. The maintenance of the civil (as opposed to the church) alphabet and the civil press contributed to the increase in the building of secular, civil books, including textbooks. For public schools, the ABC, F. Prokopovich’s “First Teaching for the Young People”, L. Magnitsky’s “Arithmetic”, and M. Smotrytsky’s “Grammar”, hours and a psalter were published. From 1708 to 1725 about 300 civil books were printed, but the circulation was still small.

A great merit in the development of Russian book publishing belongs to the Russian educator, writer, journalist N.I. Novikov (1747-1818). About one third of the books published in the last quarter of the 18th century were printed in his printing houses. books (about a thousand titles). He published books on all branches of knowledge, as well as satirical magazines "Druten", "Painter", "Purse", in which he acted as an ardent opponent of serfdom. Novikov is the organizer of libraries and schools in Moscow and bookstores in 16 Russian cities. He also published textbooks. In 1757, “Russian Grammar” was published by M.V. Lomonosov, which replaced the outdated "Grammar" by M. Smotrytsky as the main textbook.

Since 1703, the first printed newspaper Vedomosti began to appear, in which a chronicle of domestic and foreign life was published.

Extensive book publishing activities greatly accelerated the development of literature. The introduction of the civil script contributed to the strengthening of the secular language, although the Church Slavonic language was still widespread.

Popular were satires, odes, fables, epigrams of the Russian poet and educator A. Kantemir (1708-1744), one of the founders of Russian classicism in the genre of poetic satire.

Poet-philologist V.K. Tvardovsky (1703-1768) became a reformer of the Russian language and versification. In the work "A new short way to the addition of Russian poetry" he formulated the principles of Russian syllabo-tonic versification. It gave a powerful impetus further development literature in Russia.

The founder of Russian dramaturgy was A.P. Sumarokov (1717-1777), poet, author of the first Russian comedies and tragedies, director of the Russian Theater in St. Petersburg. He wrote in different genres: lyrical songs, odes, epigrams, satires, fables.

Russian manners and customs were expressed in his social comedies "Brigadier" and "Undergrowth" D.I. Fonvizin (1744/45-1792). His comedies, satirically depicting the mores of the nobility, exposing serfdom as the root of all evil in the country, laid the foundation for the accusatory-realistic direction of Russian literature.

The last quarter of the 18th century, the heyday of the poet's work, statesman G.R. Derzhavin (1743-1816). Representative of Russian classicism, he argued in the literature of the beginning of realism. The main genre of his works is ode. In them, he gave a broad picture of his contemporary life: landscape and everyday sketches, philosophical reflections, satire on the nobles. The famous ode "Felitsa" is imbued with the idea of ​​a strong state power. In it, he shows an overview of the ideal monk and encourages "kings to speak the truth with a smile." In his poems, Derzhavin boldly combined "high" and "low" styles, introduced elements of lively speech into the Russian language.

In the 80-90s of the XVIII century. were published philosophical works Russian thinker, writer A.N. Radishcheva (1749-1802). One "Liberty", the story "The Life of F.V. Ushakov "and the main work -" Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow "- are permeated with the ideas of the Russian Enlightenment, denunciation of serfdom and autocracy, a sympathetic depiction of the life of the people. The book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" was confiscated and until 1905 it was distributed in lists, the author was exiled to Siberia.

The founder of Russian sentimentalism was N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826), who reached the heights of sentimentalism in the story "Poor Lisa". Author of Letters from a Russian Traveler. The main work of Karamzin - "History of the Russian State (in 12 volumes) - a new stage in the development of Russian historical science and at the same time a sample of Russian prose.

6 . RUssky drama theater

In the XVIII century. theater continued to grow. By order of Peter in 1702, the Public Theater was created, designed for the mass public. Especially for him, the “Comedy Temple” was built on Red Square in Moscow, where the German troupe I.Kh. Kunst, who later taught the "Russian guys". The repertoire included foreign plays that were not successful with the public, and the theater ceased to exist, as the subsidies of Peter I ceased.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. The school theater at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy continued its activities. Performances were staged glorifying the deeds of Peter I.

Petrovsky official theater broke up into several theaters. Theater troupes continued their activities in the capitals and provinces.

Early 30s. In the 18th century, the official theater reappeared in St. Petersburg. In the 40s. at the Shlyakhetsky Cadet Corps, a school theater was created, in which the students of the corps acted as actors. The soul of this theater was A. Sumarokov, who also staged Russian plays there. It was there that the first Russian tragedy "Horeev" written by Sumarokov was staged.

IN mid-eighteenth V. in many cities of the Russian Empire, foreign acting troupes performed - French, German, etc. But among the public, interest in the Russian theater grew, associated with a general rise in national consciousness.

In 1705, the performances of the first provincial public theater began in Yaroslavl with Russian actors, artists, and musicians. His repertoire also included Russian plays. The theater was headed by the first famous Russian actor Fyodor Volkov (1729-1763). Tsarina Elizaveta Petrovna ordered Fyodor Volkov and the entire troupe to court, and in 1752 the theater moved to St. Petersburg. On the basis of this troupe, in 1756, by decree of the queen, a theater was created "for the presentation of tragedies and comedies." Sumarokov became its director, and F. Volkov became the first court actor. Thus, the first permanent professional state public theater called the Russian Theater was created.

In 1779, a private theater was created on the Tsaritsyn meadow, which was directed by the famous Russian actor I.L. Dmitrievsky (1734-1821). He began his acting career at the F. Volkov Theater in Yaroslavl, then he was an actor in the Russian Theater. Dmitrievsky was also a director and teacher, a full member of the Russian Academy. In his theater on the Tsaritsyn meadow, plays by D.I. Fonvizin. In 1783, by decree of Catherine II, the theater was closed.

In 1780, the Petrovsky Theater was opened in Moscow, where drama, opera and ballet performances were played.

At the end of the 18th century, a serf theater arose - noble theaters with troupes from serfs. Basically, such theaters were created in Moscow and the Moscow region (the theaters of the Sheremetevs, Yusupovs, etc.). The history of Russian theatrical art included the names of serf actresses Praskovia Zhemchugova (1763-1803), Shlykova-Granatova. At the beginning of his creative activity, the famous Russian dramatic actor Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin (1788-1863) was also a serf. Fortress theaters became the basis of the Russian provincial stage.

Ballet in Russia originated as separate dance numbers in intermissions, first dramatic, then opera performances. Ballet groups gradually began to take shape. For the training of dancers of the court ballet group in 1738, the project of "Her Majesty's Own Dance School" was approved.

With the accession to the Russian throne in 1741, the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, issued a decree on the establishment of a Russian ballet troupe. Since the production of a separate ballet "Flora's Victory over Boreas" by the invited Austrian choreographer Hilferding in 1760, the subject ballet has firmly established itself in Russia. The first Russian ballet librettist was A.P. Sumarokov.

Along with foreign dancers, Russian artists also became famous. Timofey Bublikov became the first dancer in St. Petersburg, received the court rank and the title of dance master of the court. In Moscow, famous ballet dancers were Ivan Eropkin, Vasily Balashov, Gavrila Raikov. The first Russian choreographers Balashov and Raykov staged comic ballets and divertissement in Moscow. The leading Moscow dancer was Arina Sobakina.

7. Russian musicnew art of the Enlightenment

At the end of the XVII-XVIII centuries. starts to take shape musical language, which then all of Europe will speak. The first were the German composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) and Georg Friedrich Handel (1685-1759).

The great German composer and organist Bach worked in all musical genres except opera. He is an unsurpassed master of polyphony. His orchestral music includes concertos for keyboard instruments and violins, orchestral suites. Bach's music for clavier and organ, his fugues and chorales are significant.

Like Bach, Handel used biblical subjects for his works. His most famous works are the oratorios "Saul", "Israel in Egypt", "Messiah". Handel wrote more than 40 operas, as well as huge concertos, sonatas, and suites.

Viennese music had a huge impact on the musical art of Europe. classical school and its most prominent masters are Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. Viennese classics rethought and made everything sound in a new way musical genres and forms.

Joseph Haydn (1732-1709), the teacher of Mozart and Beethoven, is called the "father of the symphony". He created over 100 symphonies. Many of them are based on the themes of folk songs and dances, which the composer developed with amazing skill. The pinnacle of his work "12 London symphonies”, written during the composer’s triumphal trips to England in the 90s. Haydn wrote many wonderful quartets and clavier sonatas, over 20 operas, 14 masses, a large number of songs and other compositions, brought to classical perfection a symphony, a quartet, a sonata. At the end creative way he created two monumental oratorios - "The Creation of the World" and "The Seasons", in which thoughts are expressed about the greatness of the universe of human life.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) impressed with his extraordinary abilities as a child: he was a virtuoso performer, he composed a lot of music. Wolfgang's extraordinary abilities developed under the guidance of his father, the violinist and composer Leopold Mozart. Since 1781 Mozart lives in Vienna, where his creative genius flourishes. In operas, Mozart, with amazing skill, creates diverse and lively human characters, shows life in its contrasts, moving from jokes to deep seriousness, from fun to subtle poetic lyrics.

The same qualities are inherent in his symphonies, sonatas, concertos, quartets, in which he creates the highest classical examples of genres. The pinnacles of classical symphonism were his 3 symphonies (Mozart wrote about 50 in total): "E flat major" - a person's life is full of joy, play, cheerful dance movement; "G minor" - deep lyric poetry the movements of the human soul, the dramatic nature of its striving; "C Major", called "Jupiter" by contemporaries, embraces the whole world with its contrasts and contradictions, affirming the rationality and harmony of its structure.

Mozart's music is the highest achievement of classicism in the perfection of melodies and forms.

“Music should strike fire from human hearts,” said Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827), whose work belongs to the achievements of human genius. A man of republican views, he asserted the dignity of the artist-creator. Beethoven was inspired by heroic stories. These are his only opera, Fidelio, and the Egmont overtures, and so on. The conquest of freedom as a result of a stubborn struggle is the main idea of ​​his work.

Beethoven's entire mature creative life is connected with Vienna, where he delighted Mozart with his playing as a young man, studied with Haydn, and became famous as a pianist here. The elemental force of dramatic clashes, the sublimity of philosophical lyrics, juicy sometimes rude humor - all this can be found in the infinitely rich world of his sonatas (he wrote 32 sonatas in total). The lyrical and dramatic images of the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Sonatas reflected the composer's despair at the very difficult period life when Beethoven was close to suicide due to hearing loss. But the crisis was overcome: the appearance of the Third Symphony marked the victory of the human will. Between 1803 and 1813 he created most of the symphonic works. The variety of creative pursuits is truly limitless. The composer was also attracted to chamber genres. Beethoven seeks to penetrate into the innermost depths of the inner world of man.

The apotheosis of his work is the Ninth Symphony and the Solemn Mass. The ninth symphony includes an excerpt from Schiller's "Years to Joy", chosen as the anthem of Europe.

Bibliography

1. Culturologists: Proc. Allowance for universities. - A.N. Markova

2. History of world culture: A.N. Markova, L.A. Nikitich, N.S. Krivtsova

3. History of Russia A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva, T.A. Sivokhina

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The Age of Enlightenment and its progressive role V aesthetic development society. Aesthetics in various forms Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment is one of the brightest in the development of spiritual culture in Europe. She was connected with the Renaissance by many threads.

The eighteenth century is not only a time of brilliant victories of Russian weapons, the construction of luxurious palaces and parks, the creation of a Russian theater, the flourishing of literature and art. It was at this time that the tasks of enlightening the fatherland were set in full breadth. The ideology of Russian enlighteners - Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov and others - was based on the experience of the enlightened monarch Peter I and his "scientific team". At this time, the humanistic ideals of the triumph of reason, the social value of a person, the importance of his civic duty are promoted. Russian classicism, as the main literary trend of the era, proclaimed the ideas of patriotism and service to the motherland. It was at this time that the words patriot and patriotism came into use.

The gradual emancipation from the influence of the church, the formation of a new worldview, the "secularization" of literature, which now turned to earthly affairs and the joys of man, urgently demanded further "secularization" and improvement of the language.

The Petrine epoch left a legacy of grammatical disorder and extraordinary lexical diversity to the Russian enlighteners. By that time, the language of Russian artistic and scientific prose had not yet been developed. This led, in particular, to extraordinary difficulties in translating from foreign languages. Known tragic fate translator Volkov, who, unable to cope with the difficulties of translating terms, committed suicide in despair.

Attempts to further democratize the language we meet in the work of the remarkable writer XVIII century, the creator of satirical works Antioch Cantemir, who willingly inserted into his satires both "common" words and proverbs. As V. G. Belinsky correctly noted later, Cantemir's satires differ not only in "the Russian language, but also in the Russian mind."

He sharply contrasted Church Slavonic and Russian with another prominent representative 18th century classicism - Vasily Trediakovsky. In the preface to the translation of Paul Thalmann's novel "Riding to the Island of Love", this unusually hardworking, but unfortunate Russian writer frankly and temperamentally declared: I did not translate the Slovenian language, but almost the simplest Russian word, that is, what we speak among ourselves. I did this for the following reasons. First: we have the Slovenian language of the church, and this book is worldly. Another: the Slovenian language in this century is very dark, and many of ours reading it do not understand: "In the keynote speech delivered in 1735 at the opening" Russian collection" translators, Trediakovsky put forward the tasks of compiling a grammar "good and serviceable", a dictionary ("dictionary") and rhetoric.

However, life still urgently demanded the democratization and streamlining of the Russian language. The lack of grammatical and stylistic norms hampered not only the official language practice. It contradicted the requirements of the then dominant literary direction- classicism, which was based on rationalism, strict normativity and a hierarchy of genre rules designed to regulate artistic creativity.

To carry out the urgent tasks of streamlining the Russian literary language was only possible for the genius of Lomonosov, in whom a talented poet and a great all-round scientist happily united. "From Lomonosov," wrote V. G. Belinsky, "our literature begins; he was her father and tutor; he was her Peter the Great." It would not be an exaggeration to say that scientific comprehension and normalization of the Russian literary language also began with Lomonosov.

Lomonosov did amazingly much in the field of the humanities. But, of course, his works on grammar and style are the most significant for us. He highly appreciated the importance of grammar in the life of society in the introduction to the "Russian Grammar", completed in 1755, Lomonosov wrote: "Stupid oratorio, tongue-tied poetry, jurisprudence without grammar is doubtful." Lomonosov's work is, in essence, the first grammar of the Russian language, and not of the Church Slavonic language. This work contains not only a detailed and thorough description of the grammatical structure of the Russian language, based on rich and careful observations. Grammar of Lomonosov is the first normative and stylistic manual, which regulated the use of forms of the language that existed in parallel at that time. It would be difficult even to list those features of the then word usage that Lomonosov discovered and noted in his grammar, often brilliantly predicting their future fate. So, for example, he points out that for high style in prepositional it is recommended to use forms of nouns in -e, and for a simple style - forms in -y; for example: in the sweat of one's brow, work was done, but in the sweat he ran home. We also find traces of the stylistic demarcation of these grammatical variants in the modern language; cf. in a neutral style: be on vacation, work in the 5th shop; in colloquial speech: to be on vacation, to work in the 5th workshop. And, I repeat, dozens of such examples could be cited.

Nothing less historical meaning had the Lomonosov doctrine of three styles. There is no opportunity and need to set out in detail his stylistic theory. Suffice it to say that Lomonosov approved the Russian (and not Church Slavonic) basis of the Russian literary language. However, not all Slavic words were expelled from speech practice, but only "very dilapidated", "unintelligible" words (for example: obavayu, ryasny, svene - in translation: I conjure, eyelashes, except). A complete rejection of Church Slavonicisms would then mean an undesirable break with the bookish cultural tradition (besides, as we will see below, many Slavicisms later became a significant stylistic means). The historical task then was to combine Russian (including vernacular) and Church Slavonic elements within a single literary language, which, in turn, assumed their confinement to certain literary genres and speech styles. This problem was brilliantly solved by Lomonosov. This paved the way for the creation of a unified Russian literary language.

Important role the literary practice of the poet and scientist played in the creation of a unified Russian literary language. For a long time, the opinion prevailed in science that Lomonosov was mainly a court poet, the author of laudatory solemn odes, generously saturated with sonorous and magnificent metaphors. The loftiness and pathos of Lomonosov's poems gave reason to compare them with the festive splendor of the palaces of Bartholomew Rastrelli. But such an assessment of his literary work suffers from an obvious one-sidedness. This was also noted by Pushkin. "Lomonosov," he wrote, "himself did not value his poetry and was much more concerned about his chemical experiments than about official odes on the highly solemn day of the namesake, and so on." Pushkin also mentions such a fact: "Another time, arguing with the same nobleman, Lomonosov made him so angry that Shuvalov shouted:" I will put you away from the Academy! ". That's what this" humiliated "writer of commendable odes and court idylls was like!"

Science for Lomonosov was a true vocation, the work of his whole life. Even in poems on a solemn occasion (for example, in "Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna"), he composes a hymn to science:

The sciences feed young men,

They give joy to the old,

IN happy life decorate,

In case of an accident, take care of:

Lomonosov, the scientist, did an unusually great deal for the formation of the language of Russian science. In addition to improving the syntax, he made a significant contribution to the creation of accessible and understandable scientific terminology. They proposed such physical and technical names as: air pump, earth's axis, liquid bodies, balance of bodies, resistance, elasticity and dozens of others. new philosophical and terminological meaning Lomonosov put into everyday Russian words: experience, movement, phenomenon, particle, etc.

The era of the Russian Enlightenment is characterized not only by a general significant increase in the lexical composition of the Russian language, but also by a very noticeable increase in words denoting abstract concepts. Even Cantemir, in the translation of Fontenelle's book "Conversations about the Many Worlds", introduced the words concept, density, beginning (in the meaning of "principle") into everyday life. In the XVIII century. the Russian language is enriched with dozens of new words in -ost (legality, correctness, obsolescence, limitation, remoteness, gullibility, dreaminess, irritability, absent-mindedness, etc.) and -in (impression, review, accusation, training, rebirth, resettlement, protection, philosophizing, etc.). At the same time, it is essential to note that such words expressing abstract concepts were clearly born on a Russian, and not on a Church Slavonic basis.

In the last quarter of the XVIII century. in literature and language, the trends of the new time are becoming more and more tangible. The era of the dominance of classicism is coming to an end. Derzhavin's realistic lyrics require already different language tools. The invasion of vernacular into the middle and even high styles destroys the severity of their former boundaries. The language of poetry is also gradually being simplified. Here, for example, how unconstrained, colloquial words(previously completely unacceptable in poetry) Derzhavin writes:

Or, sitting at home, I will show

Playing fools with my wife;

Then I get along with her on the dovecote,

Sometimes we frolic in blindfolds:

But the element of the people had not yet found full rights citizenship. The time for reassessment of values ​​is ahead. The Russian language has not yet completely freed itself from the chains of Slavicism, and already the nobility's salon claims to be the legislator of norms. What path will our language take?

For the development of world cultural thought, to reveal their role in the formation of cultural studies as a special system of knowledge is an urgent task of modern science. So, the topic of this essay is “Problems of culture in the philosophy of Russian education”. The purpose of the work is to reflect the essence of the process of formation of culture in the Enlightenment. In connection with the purpose of the work, the following tasks are set: - to reflect the essence ...

Journal" P. Rousseau criticizes the supporters of the traditional concept, coming from the humanists of the 16th century, who did not strive for a wide dissemination of knowledge among the majority of the "uninitiated". The culture of the era of the European Enlightenment (the American Enlightenment is close to it) has a number of distinctive features. Firstly, it is characterized by deism (the doctrine of God as the creator of the universe, which, after its creation ...