The Renaissance is a phenomenal phenomenon in the history of mankind. Never again has there been such a brilliant flash in the field of art. Sculptors, architects and artists of the Renaissance (the list is long, but we will touch on the most famous), whose names are known to everyone, gave the world priceless. Unique and exceptional people showed themselves not in one field, but in several at once.

Early Renaissance painting

The Renaissance has a relative time frame. It first began in Italy - 1420-1500. At this time, painting and all art in general is not much different from the recent past. However, elements borrowed from classical antiquity begin to appear for the first time. And only in subsequent years, sculptors, architects and artists of the Renaissance (the list of which is very long) were influenced by modern conditions life and progressive trends finally abandon the medieval foundations. They boldly adopt the best examples of ancient art for their works, both in general and in individual details. Their names are known to many, let's focus on the brightest personalities.

Masaccio - the genius of European painting

It was he who made a huge contribution to the development of painting, becoming a great reformer. The Florentine master was born in 1401 into a family of artistic artisans, so the sense of taste and the desire to create were in his blood. At the age of 16-17 he moved to Florence, where he worked in workshops. Donatello and Brunelleschi, the great sculptors and architects, are considered to be his teachers. Communication with them and the acquired skills could not but affect the young painter. From the first, Masaccio borrowed a new understanding of the human personality, characteristic of sculpture. At the second master - the basis The researchers consider the Triptych of San Giovenale (in the first photo) to be the first reliable work, which was discovered in a small church near the town in which Masaccio was born. The main work is the frescoes dedicated to the history of the life of St. Peter. The artist participated in the creation of six of them, namely: "The Miracle with the Stater", "The Expulsion from Paradise", "The Baptism of Neophytes", "The Distribution of Property and the Death of Ananias", "The Resurrection of Theophilus' Son", "St. Peter Heals the Sick with His Shadow" and "Saint Peter in the Pulpit".

Italian artists of the Renaissance are people who devoted themselves entirely to art, not paying attention to ordinary everyday problems, which sometimes led them to a poor existence. Masaccio is no exception. master of genius died very early, at the age of 27-28, leaving behind great works and a large number of debts.

Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506)

This is a representative of the Padua school of painters. He received the basics of skill from his adoptive father. The style was formed under the influence of the works of Masaccio, Andrea del Castagno, Donatello and Venetian painting. This determined the somewhat harsh and harsh manner of Andrea Mantegna compared to the Florentines. He was a collector and connoisseur of cultural works of the ancient period. Thanks to his style, unlike any other, he became famous as an innovator. His most famous works are: "Dead Christ", "Caesar's Triumph", "Judith", "Battle of the Sea Gods", "Parnassus" (pictured), etc. From 1460 until his death, he worked as a court painter in the family of the Dukes of Gonzaga.

Sandro Botticelli(1445-1510)

Botticelli is a pseudonym real name- Filipepi. He did not immediately choose the path of an artist, but initially studied jewelry making. In the first independent works (several Madonnas), the influence of Masaccio and Lippi is felt. In the future, he also glorified himself as a portrait painter, the bulk of the orders came from Florence. The refined and refined nature of his work with elements of stylization (generalization of images using conventional techniques - simplicity of form, color, volume) distinguishes him from other masters of that time. A contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci and the young Michelangelo left a bright mark on world art (“The Birth of Venus” (photo), “Spring”, “Adoration of the Magi”, “Venus and Mars”, “Christmas”, etc.). His painting is sincere and sensitive, and life path complex and tragic. The romantic perception of the world at a young age was replaced by mysticism and religious exaltation in maturity. The last years of his life, Sandro Botticelli lived in poverty and oblivion.

Piero (Pietro) della Francesca (1420-1492)

Italian painter and another representative of the era early renaissance originally from Tuscany. The author's style was formed under the influence of the Florentine school of painting. In addition to the talent of the artist, Piero della Francesca had outstanding abilities in the field of mathematics, and last years devoted his life to her, trying to connect her with high art. The result was two scientific treatises: "On Perspective in Painting" and "The Book of Five Correct Solids". His style is distinguished by solemnity, harmony and nobility of images, compositional balance, precise lines and construction, soft range of colors. Piero della Francesca had amazing knowledge for that time technical side painting and features of perspective, which earned him high prestige among his contemporaries. The most famous works: "The History of the Queen of Sheba", "The Flagellation of Christ" (pictured), "The Altar of Montefeltro", etc.

High Renaissance painting

If the Proto-Renaissance and the early era lasted almost a century and a half and a century, respectively, then this period covers only a few decades (in Italy from 1500 to 1527). It was a bright, dazzling flash that gave the world a whole galaxy of great, versatile and brilliant people. All branches of art went hand in hand, so many masters are also scientists, sculptors, inventors, and not just Renaissance artists. The list is long, but the pinnacle of the Renaissance was marked by the work of L. da Vinci, M. Buanarotti and R. Santi.

The Extraordinary Genius of Da Vinci

Perhaps this is the most extraordinary and outstanding personality in the history of world art culture. He was a universal person in the full sense of the word and possessed the most versatile knowledge and talents. Artist, sculptor, art theorist, mathematician, architect, anatomist, astronomer, physicist and engineer - all this is about him. Moreover, in each of the areas, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) showed himself as an innovator. So far, only 15 of his paintings, as well as many sketches, have survived. Possessing tremendous vitality and a thirst for knowledge, he was impatient, he was fascinated by the very process of knowledge. At a very young age (20 years old) he qualified as a master of the Guild of St. Luke. His most the most important works steel fresco The Last Supper”, paintings “Mona Lisa”, “Madonna Benois” (pictured above), “Lady with an Ermine”, etc.

Portraits by Renaissance artists are rare. They preferred to leave their images in paintings with many faces. So, around the self-portrait of da Vinci (pictured), disputes do not subside to this day. Versions are put forward that he made it at the age of 60. According to the biographer, artist and writer Vasari, the great master was dying in the arms of his close friend King Francis I in his Clos Luce castle.

Raphael Santi (1483-1520)

Artist and architect originally from Urbino. His name in art is invariably associated with the idea of ​​sublime beauty and natural harmony. For a fairly short life (37 years), he created many world-famous paintings, frescoes and portraits. The plots that he portrayed are very diverse, but he was always attracted by the image of the Mother of God. Absolutely justifiably Raphael is called the "master of the Madonnas", those that he painted in Rome are especially famous. In the Vatican, he worked from 1508 until the end of his life as an official artist at the papal court.

All-round gifted, like many other great artists of the Renaissance, Raphael was also an architect, and also studied archaeological excavations. According to one version, the last hobby is in direct relationship with untimely death. Presumably, he contracted Roman fever during the excavations. The great master is buried in the Pantheon. The photo is of his self-portrait.

Michelangelo Buoanarroti (1475-1564)

The long 70-year-old of this man was bright, he left to his descendants imperishable creations not only of painting, but also of sculpture. Like other great artists of the Renaissance, Michelangelo lived in a time full of historical events and upheavals. His art is a beautiful final note of the entire Renaissance.

The master put sculpture above all other arts, but by the will of fate he became an outstanding painter and architect. His most ambitious and unusual work is the painting (pictured) in the palace in the Vatican. The area of ​​the fresco exceeds 600 square meters and contains 300 human figures. The most impressive and familiar is the scene of the Last Judgment.

Italian Renaissance artists had multifaceted talents. So, few people know that Michelangelo was also a great poet. This facet of his genius was fully manifested at the end of his life. About 300 poems have survived to this day.

Late Renaissance painting

The final period covers the time period from 1530 to 1590-1620. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Renaissance historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527. Around the same time, the Counter-Reformation won in southern Europe. The Catholic movement looked with apprehension at any free-thinking, including the glorification of beauty. human body and the resurrection of the art of the ancient period - that is, everything that was the pillars of the Renaissance. This resulted in a special trend - mannerism, characterized by the loss of harmony between the spiritual and the physical, man and nature. But even in this difficult period some famous artists Renaissance created their masterpieces. Among them are Antonio da Correggio, (considered the founder of classicism and Palladianism) and Titian.

Titian Vecellio (1488-1490 - 1676)

He is rightfully considered a titan of the Renaissance, along with Michelangelo, Raphael and da Vinci. Even before he was 30 years old, Titian was known as the "king of painters and painter of kings." Basically, the artist painted pictures on mythological and biblical themes, besides, he became famous as a magnificent portrait painter. Contemporaries believed that being imprinted with the brush of a great master means gaining immortality. And indeed it is. Orders to Titian came from the most revered and noble persons: popes, kings, cardinals and dukes. Here are just a few, the most famous, of his works: "Venus of Urbino", "The Abduction of Europe" (pictured), "Carrying the Cross", "Coronation with Thorns", "Pesaro Madonna", "Woman with a Mirror", etc.

Nothing is repeated twice. The era of the Renaissance gave mankind brilliant, extraordinary personalities. Their names are inscribed in the world history of art in golden letters. Architects and sculptors, writers and artists of the Renaissance - their list is very long. We touched only on the titans who made history, brought the ideas of enlightenment and humanism to the world.

RENAISSANCE ART

1. general characteristics era.

2. Literature.

3. Painting.

4. Architecture. Sculpture.

General characteristics of the era

Renaissance (French renaissance - "renaissance") - a phenomenon cultural development a number of countries of Central and Western Europe. Chronologically, the Renaissance covers the period of the XIV-XVI centuries. The term "Renaissance" was first introduced in the 16th century. famous Italian artist, architect and art historian Giorgio Vasari. The Renaissance is an era of great economic and social transformations in the life of many European countries, an era of humanism and enlightenment.

During this historical period, in various areas of the life of human society, favorable conditions arise for an unprecedented take-off of culture. The development of science and technology, the great geographical discoveries, the movement of trade routes and the emergence of new commercial and industrial centers significantly expanded and changed man's understanding of the world around him. Ideas about the person himself are changing. The most important feature of the Renaissance worldview was individualism. Another characteristic feature of the new worldview was the awakening national identity. People have a feeling of patriotism, the concept of the fatherland is formed.

Periodization:

1. Pre-revival (ducento) - XIII century.

2. Proto-Renaissance (trecento) - XIV century.

3. High Renaissance (quattrocento) - XV century.

4. Late Renaissance (cinquecento) - XVI century.

Literature

Francesco Petrarca was the first poet of the Renaissance. He is the author of the collection of poems "Canzonere" (a book of songs), dedicated to the poet's beloved - Laura. The poems included in the collection are diverse in genre, but mostly are sonnets. Love experiences are not just described by the poet, but also analyzed.

Niccolò Machiavelli was a prominent Renaissance writer. political figure late Renaissance, author of the treatise "The Sovereign". A new type of hero appears in literature - the Machiavellian hero. The appearance of this type of hero was the first sign of the crisis of humanistic ideology.

The largest figure of the European Renaissance was Erasmus of Rotterdam - a writer, philologist, philosopher, theologian, author of works on pedagogy, translator from Greek and Latin.

The brightest cutting-edge ideas French Renaissance were embodied in the works of F. Rabelais, author famous novel Gargantua and Pantagruel. Rabelais set himself the task of writing a parody of the heroic epic. The main differences between the novel and the epic are as follows:

The novel is not the embodiment of a collective (impersonal) beginning, but a personal one;

The hero of the novel is an individual, not a generalized image;

The novel is always focused on the present.

In the novel, Rabelais ridicules, on the one hand, the numerous claims of the church, and on the other hand, the ignorance and laziness of the monks. Rabelais vividly shows all the vices of the Catholic clergy that caused mass protest during the Reformation - the exorbitant desire for profit, the claims of the popes for political dominance in Europe, the sanctimonious piety that covers the depravity of the ministers of the church. Strongly goes to medieval scholasticism - divorced from real life reflections on the place of God in earthly existence - and to famous scholastic philosophers in particular. Rabelais opposes medieval inertia and lawlessness with the ideals of freedom and self-sufficiency of man. The author most fully outlined his vision of these ideas in practice in the episode with Theleme Abbey, which Brother Jean organizes with the permission of Gargantua. There is no coercion and prejudice in the abbey, and all conditions for the harmonious development of the human personality are created. The charter of the abbey consists of one rule: "Do what you want." The chapters on the Abbey of Theleme, as well as on Gargantua's upbringing under the guidance of Ponocrates, are the complete embodiment of the principles of humanism in Rabelais's novel. In this respect, "Gargantua and Pantagruel" is the brightest literary monument of the Renaissance, when one cultural paradigm, the medieval one, broke down, and another, the Renaissance one, emerged.

The work of the outstanding Spanish humanists of the era, such as M. Cervantes, Lope de Vega and others, was characterized by a deep national-historical content, patriotism, and a high appreciation of human dignity.

England also saw its greatest rise literary creativity. Suffice it to mention the name of the brilliant playwright and poet W. Shakespeare. There are four main periods in Shakespeare's work:

1. 1590-1594. The beginning of Shakespeare's dramatic work. The first pieces are oriented towards ancient samples. So, in the chronicles "Henry VI", "Richard III" the influence of the "bloody tragedy" in the spirit of Seneca is palpable. During this period, Shakespeare also wrote the comedies The Comedy of Errors and The Taming of the Shrew.

2. 1595-1600. The comedy "Two Veronians" is a transitional work. Romantic period. The comedies "A Midsummer Night's Dream", "Twelfth Night" are being created. The tragedy "Romeo and Juliet" belongs to this period.

3. 1601-1609. Time to create great tragedies. Shakespeare's plays "Hamlet", "Macbeth", "Othello", "King Lear" - reflect the crisis of humanistic ideology. Faith in the idea of ​​the original goodness of man was shaken, it became obvious that evil is rooted in human nature itself. Shakespeare's heroes are in the power of passions, they are capable of crimes. Here the tragedy lies not only in the clash of the individual and society, but also in the internal contradictions in the soul of the hero. The problem is brought to a general philosophical level, and the characters remain unusually multifaceted and psychologically voluminous. At the same time, it is very important that in the great tragedies of Shakespeare there is a complete absence of a fatalistic attitude towards fate, which predetermines tragedy. The main emphasis, as before, is placed on the personality of the hero, who shapes his own destiny and the fate of those around him. Comedy is changing. They were called "dark comedies" or "problem plays".

4. 1609-1613. Period " romantic dramas". The most striking example is "The Winter's Tale". These are poetic tales leading away from reality into the world of dreams. The complete conscious rejection of realism and retreat into romantic fantasy is naturally interpreted by Shakespeare scholars as the playwright's disappointment in humanistic ideals, the recognition of the impossibility of achieving harmony. This path - from a triumphantly jubilant faith in harmony to tired disappointment - actually went through the entire worldview of the Renaissance.

Painting

The era of Ducento is considered the beginning of Renaissance painting. The Proto-Renaissance is still closely connected with the medieval Romanesque, Gothic and Byzantine traditions. Artists of the late XIII - early XIV centuries. are still far from the scientific study of the surrounding reality. They express their ideas about it, still using the conventional images of the Byzantine pictorial system. But sometimes the appearance of architectural structures is so accurately reproduced that this indicates the existence of sketches from nature. Traditional religious characters are beginning to be depicted in a world endowed with the properties of reality - volume, spatial depth, material materiality. The search for transmission methods on the plane of volume and three-dimensional space begins. The masters of this time revive the well-known antiquity principle of chiaroscuro modeling of forms. Thanks to her figures and buildings acquire density and volume. Apparently, the first who applied the ancient perspective was the Florentine Cenny di Pepo, nicknamed Cimabue. Unfortunately, his most significant work - a series of paintings on themes from the Apocalypse, the life of Mary and the Apostle Peter in the church of San Francesco in Assisi, has come down to us almost in a ruined state. His altar compositions, which are in Florence and in the Louvre Museum, are better preserved. They also go back to Byzantine prototypes, but they clearly show the features of a new approach to religious painting. The work of Cimabue was the starting point for those new processes that determined the further development of painting.

Great artists appear as bold innovators who reject the traditional system. Giotto di Bondone should be recognized as such a reformer in Italian painting of the 14th century. He is the creator of a new pictorial system, the great reformer of the whole European painting, the true ancestor of the new art. The most famous of the works of Giotto that have come down to us is the cycle of murals in the chapel del Arena in Padua, dedicated to the gospel stories about the life of Christ. This picturesque unique ensemble is one of the milestone works in the history of European art. Instead of disparate individual scenes and figures characteristic of medieval painting, Giotto created a single epic cycle. Thirty-eight scenes from the life of Christ and Mary (“Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth”, “Kiss of Judas”, “Lamentation”, etc.) are connected in a single narrative by the language of painting. Instead of the usual golden Byzantine background, Giotto introduces a landscape background. The figures no longer float in space, but acquire solid ground under their feet. And although they are still inactive, they show a desire to convey the anatomy of the human body and the naturalness of movement. Giotto gives the forms an almost sculptural perceptibility, heaviness, density. It models the relief, gradually highlighting the main colorful background. This principle of light and shade modeling, which made it possible to work with clean, bright colors without dark shadows, became dominant in Italian painting until the 16th century. Of the numerous late fresco cycles of Giotto mentioned in the sources, only the paintings of two chapels of the Florentine church of Site Croce have survived. They are dedicated to Saint Francis of Assisi, the founder of the order of mendicant monks, who lived in late XII- the beginning of the XIII century. This pictorial glorification of the teachings of St. Francis is not accidental. St. Francis laid the foundation for a new attitude of man. Man for him is a wonderful divine creature, entrusted with his love to enliven the world. He taught that God's grace is poured into everything that exists - in the stars, plants, animals, which he called brothers. He did not condemn the world for its sinfulness, but admired its divine harmony. Franciscanism was an integral part of the proto-Renaissance attitude. Not the restoration of antiquity and the denial of Christianity, but the revival and enlightenment of man is an action. This is a new word in the world art of painting.

Characteristic painting of the late Quattrocento - a variety of schools and trends. At this time, the Florentine, Umbrian (Piero della Francesca, Pinturicchio, Perugino), northern Italian (Andrea Mantegni), Venetian (Antonello da Messina, Giovanni Bellini) schools were formed. One of the most outstanding artists of Quattrocento - Sandro Botticelli - an exponent of the aesthetic ideals of the court of the famous tyrant, politician, philanthropist, poet and philosopher Lorenzo Medici called the Magnificent. In the art of Botticelli, a kind of synthesis of medieval mysticism with the ancient tradition, the ideals of the Gothic and the Renaissance takes place. In his mythological images there is a revival of symbolism. He portrays beautiful ancient goddesses not in sensual images of earthly beauty, but in romantic, spiritualized, sublime images. Two paintings that glorified him are "The Birth of Venus" and "Spring". In them we see a peculiar female image of Botticelli: an elongated oval of the face, a long nose with thin nostrils, raised eyebrows, wide open, perplexed, dreaming and as if suffering eyes. Botticelli surprisingly combined pagan sensuality and increased spirituality, sculptural rigidity and delicate fragility, sophistication, linear accuracy and emotionality, variability. Botticelli's paintings, in addition to their direct expressiveness, also have a hidden emotional sound.

The Renaissance caused profound changes in all areas of culture - philosophy, science and art. One of them is. which is becoming more and more independent of religion, ceases to be the "handmaid of theology", although it is still far from complete independence. As in other areas of culture, the teachings of ancient thinkers are being revived in philosophy, primarily Plato and Aristotle. Marsilio Ficino founded the Platonic Academy in Florence, translated the works of the great Greek into Latin. Aristotle's ideas returned to Europe even earlier, before the Renaissance. During the Renaissance, according to Luther, it is he, and not Christ, who "rules in the European universities."

Along with the ancient teachings, the natural philosophy, or the philosophy of nature. It is preached by such philosophers as B. Telesio, T. Campanella, D. Bruno. In their works, thoughts are developed that philosophy should not study the supernatural God, but nature itself, that nature is subject to its own, internal laws that the basis of knowledge is experience and observation, and not divine revelation that man is part of nature.

The spread of natural philosophical views was facilitated by scientific discoveries. Chief among them was heliocentric theory N. Copernicus, which made a real revolution in ideas about the world.

It should, however, be noted that the scientific and philosophical views of that time are still under a noticeable influence from religion and theology. Such views often take the form pantheism in which the existence of God is not denied, but He is dissolved in nature, identified with it. To this we must also add the influence of the so-called occult sciences - astrology, alchemy, mysticism, magic, etc. All this takes place even in such a philosopher as D. Bruno.

The Renaissance brought about the most significant changes in artistic culture, art. It was in this area that the break with the Middle Ages turned out to be the deepest and most radical.

In the Middle Ages, art was largely applied in nature, it was woven into life itself and was supposed to decorate it. In the Renaissance, art for the first time acquires intrinsic value, it becomes an independent area of ​​beauty. At the same time, for the first time, a purely artistic, aesthetic feeling is formed in the perceiving viewer, for the first time a love for art is awakened for its own sake, and not for the sake of the purpose it serves.

Never before has art enjoyed such high honor and respect. Even in ancient Greece, the work of an artist in its social significance was noticeably inferior to the activities of a politician and a citizen. An even more modest place was occupied by the artist in ancient Rome.

Now place and role of the artist in society are growing immeasurably. For the first time he is considered as an independent and respected professional, scientist and thinker, a unique individuality. In the Renaissance, art is perceived as one of the most powerful means of knowledge and in this capacity is equated with science. Leonardo da Vinci considers science and art as two completely equal ways of studying nature. He writes: "Painting is a science and the legitimate daughter of nature."

Still more highly valued art as creativity. In terms of his creative abilities, the Renaissance artist is equated with God the Creator. This explains why Raphael received the addition "Divine" to his name. For the same reasons, Dante's Comedy was also called "Divine".

Art itself is undergoing profound changes. It makes a decisive turn from a medieval symbol and sign to a realistic image and a reliable image. The means of artistic expression are becoming new. They are now based on linear and aerial perspective, three-dimensionality of volume, the doctrine of proportions. Art in everything strives to be true to reality, to achieve objectivity, authenticity and vitality.

The Renaissance was primarily Italian. Therefore, it is not surprising that it was in Italy that art during this period reached its highest rise and flourishing. It is here that there are dozens of names of titans, geniuses, great and simply talented artists. There are also great names in other countries, but Italy is beyond competition.

In the Italian Renaissance, several stages are usually distinguished:

• Proto-Renaissance: second half of the 13th century. - XIV century.
• Early Renaissance: almost the entire XV century.
• High Renaissance: late 15th century - first third of the 16th century
• Late Renaissance: the last two thirds of the 16th century.

The main figures of the Proto-Renaissance are the poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) and the painter Giotto (1266/67-1337).

Fate presented Dante with many trials. He was persecuted for participating in the political struggle, he wandered, died in a foreign land, in Ravenna. His contribution to culture goes beyond poetry. He wrote not only love lyrics but also philosophical and political treatises. Dante is the creator of the Italian literary language. Sometimes he is called the last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of the Modern Age. These two beginnings - the old and the new - are really closely intertwined in his work.

The first works of Dante - "New Life" and "Feast" - are lyrical poems of love content dedicated to his beloved Beatrice, whom he met once in Florence and who died seven years after their meeting. The poet kept his love for life. In terms of its genre, Dante's lyrics are in line with medieval courtly poetry, where the object of chanting is the image of the "Beautiful Lady". However, the feelings expressed by the poet already belong to the Renaissance. They are caused by real meetings and events, filled with sincere warmth, marked by a unique individuality.

The pinnacle of Dante's work was "The Divine Comedy”, which has taken a special place in the history of world culture. In its construction, this poem is also in line with medieval traditions. It tells about the adventures of a man who got into afterworld. The poem has three parts - Hell, Purgatory and Paradise, each of which has 33 songs written in three-line stanzas.

The repeated number "three" directly echoes the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. In the course of the story, Dante strictly follows many of the requirements of Christianity. In particular, he does not allow his companion in the nine circles of hell and purgatory - the Roman poet Virgil - into paradise, for the pagan is deprived of such a right. Here the poet is accompanied by his deceased beloved Beatrice.

However, in his thoughts and judgments, in his attitude to the characters portrayed and their sins. Dante often and very significantly disagrees with Christian teaching. So. instead of the Christian condemnation of sensual love as a sin, he speaks of the "law of love", according to which sensual love is included in the nature of life itself. Dante treats the love of Francesca and Paolo with understanding and sympathy. although their love is linked to Francesca's betrayal of her husband. The Renaissance spirit triumphs in Dante on other occasions as well.

Among the outstanding Italian poets is also Francesco Petrarch. In world culture, he is known primarily for his sonnets. At the same time, he was a broad-based thinker, philosopher and historian. He is rightfully considered the founder of the entire Renaissance culture.

The work of Petrarch is also partly within the framework of medieval courtly lyrics. Like Dante, he had a lover named Laura, to whom he dedicated his "Book of Songs". At the same time, Petrarch more decisively breaks ties with medieval culture. In his works, the expressed feelings - love, pain, despair, longing - appear much sharper and more naked. They have a stronger personal touch.

Another prominent representative of the literature was Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375). world famous author Decameron". The principle of constructing your collection of short stories and plot outline Boccaccio borrows from the Middle Ages. Everything else is imbued with the spirit of the Renaissance.

The main characters of the novels are ordinary and ordinary people. They are written in surprisingly bright, lively, colloquial language. They do not contain boring moralizing, on the contrary, many short stories literally sparkle with love of life and fun. The plots of some of them have love and erotic character. In addition to the Decameron, Boccaccio also wrote the story Fiametta, which is considered the first psychological novel Western literature.

Giotto di Bondone is the most prominent representative of the Italian Proto-Renaissance in the visual arts. His main genre was fresco painting. All of them are written on biblical and mythological subjects, depict scenes from the life of the Holy Family, evangelists, saints. However, the interpretation of these plots is clearly dominated by the Renaissance beginning. In his work, Giotto abandons medieval conventions and turns to realism and plausibility. It is for him that the merit of the revival of painting as an artistic value in itself is recognized.

In his works, the natural landscape is quite realistically depicted, on which trees, rocks, and temples are clearly visible. All participating characters, including the saints themselves, appear as living people endowed with physical flesh, human feelings and passions. Their clothes outline the natural forms of their bodies. Giotto's works are characterized by bright coloring and picturesqueness, fine plasticity.

The main creation of Giotto is the painting of the Chapel del Arena in Padua, which tells about events from the life of the Holy Family. The strongest impression is made by the wall cycle, which includes the scenes "Flight into Egypt", "Kiss of Judas", "Lamentation of Christ".

All the characters depicted in the paintings look natural and authentic. The position of their bodies, gestures, emotional condition, looks, faces - all this is shown with rare psychological persuasiveness. At the same time, the behavior of each strictly corresponds to the role assigned to him. Each scene has a unique atmosphere.

So, in the scene "Flight to Egypt" a restrained and generally calm emotional tone prevails. "Kiss of Judas" is filled with stormy dynamism, sharp and decisive actions of characters who literally grappled with each other. And only the two main participants - Judas and Christ - froze without moving and fight with their eyes.

The scene "Lamentation of Christ" is marked by special drama. It is filled with tragic despair, unbearable pain and suffering, inconsolable grief and sorrow.

The early Renaissance finally approved new aesthetic and artistic principles of art. At the same time, biblical stories are still very popular. However, their interpretation becomes completely different, there is little left of the Middle Ages in it.

Motherland Early Renaissance became Florence, and the "fathers of the Renaissance" are the architect Philippe Brunelleschi(1377-1446), sculptor Donatello(1386-1466). painter Masaccio (1401 -1428).

Brunelleschi made a huge contribution to the development of architecture. He laid the foundations of Renaissance architecture, discovered new forms that existed for centuries. He did much to develop the laws of perspective.

Brunelleschi's most significant work was the erection of a dome over the finished structure of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. He faced an exceptionally difficult task, since the required dome had to be of enormous size - about 50 m in diameter. With the help of the original design, it emerges with brilliance difficult situation. Thanks to the solution found, not only the dome itself turned out to be surprisingly light and, as it were, hovering over the city, but the entire building of the cathedral acquired harmony and majesty.

No less beautiful work of Brunelleschi was the famous Pazzi Chapel, erected in the courtyard of the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. It is a small, rectangular building, covered in the center with a dome. Inside it is lined with white marble. Like other buildings of Brunelleschi, the chapel is distinguished by simplicity and clarity, elegance and grace.

Brunelleschi's work is notable for the fact that he goes beyond places of worship and creates magnificent buildings. secular architecture. An excellent example of such architecture is the orphanage, built in the shape of the letter "P", with a covered gallery-loggia.

The Florentine sculptor Donatello is one of the most prominent creators of the Early Renaissance. He worked in the most different genres everywhere showing true innovation. In his work, Donatello uses the ancient heritage, relying on a deep study of nature, boldly updating the means of artistic expression.

He is involved in the development of the theory linear perspective, revives the sculptural portrait and the image of the naked body, casts the first bronze monument. The images he created are the embodiment of the humanistic ideal of a harmoniously developed personality. With his work, Donatello had a great influence on the subsequent development of European sculpture.

Donatello's desire to idealize the depicted person was clearly manifested in statue of young David. In this work, David appears as a young, beautiful, full of mental and physical strength young men. The beauty of his naked body is emphasized by a gracefully curved torso. The young face expresses thoughtfulness and sadness. This statue was followed by a whole series of nude figures in Renaissance sculpture.

The heroic principle is strong and distinct in the statue of St. George, which became one of the pinnacles of Donatello's work. Here he fully succeeded in embodying the idea strong personality. Before us is a tall, slender, courageous, calm and self-confident warrior. In this work, the master creatively develops the best traditions of ancient sculpture.

A classic work of Donatello is the bronze statue of the commander Gattamelatta - the first equestrian monument in the art of the Renaissance. Here great sculptor reaches the ultimate level of artistic and philosophical generalization, which brings this work closer to antiquity.

At the same time, Donatello created a portrait of a specific and unique personality. The commander appears as a real Renaissance hero, a courageous, calm, self-confident person. The statue is distinguished by laconic forms, clear and precise plasticity, natural posture of the rider and horse. Thanks to this, the monument has become a real masterpiece of monumental sculpture.

In the last period of creativity, Donatello creates a bronze group "Judith and Holofernes". This work is filled with dynamics and drama: Judith is depicted at the moment when she raises her sword over the already wounded Holofernes. to finish him off.

Masaccio rightfully considered one of the main figures of the Early Renaissance. He continues and develops the trends coming from Giotto. Masaccio lived only 27 years and managed to do little. However, the frescoes he created became real school painting for later Italian artists. According to Vasari, a contemporary of the High Renaissance and an authoritative critic, “no master came so close to contemporary masters like Masaccio.

The main creation of Masaccio are the frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, which tell about episodes from the legends of St.

Although the frescoes tell of the miracles performed by St. Peter, there is nothing supernatural and mystical in them. The depicted Christ, Peter, the apostles and other participants in the events appear to be quite earthly people. They are endowed individual traits and behave in a completely natural and human way. In particular, in the scene of "Baptism" a naked young man shivering from the cold is surprisingly authentically shown. Masaccio builds his composition using not only linear, but also aerial perspective.

Of the whole cycle, special mention deserves fresco "Expulsion from Paradise". She is a true masterpiece of painting. The fresco is extremely laconic, there is nothing superfluous in it. Against the background of a vague landscape, the figures of Adam and Eve who left the gates of Paradise are clearly visible, above which an angel with a sword hovers. All attention is focused on Mom and Eva.

Masaccio was the first in the history of painting to be able to paint a naked body so convincingly and reliably, to convey its natural proportions, to give it stability and movement. Equally convincing and eloquent internal state heroes. Adam, who was striding broadly, lowered his head in shame and covered his face with his hands. Sobbing, Eve threw back her head in despair. open mouth. This fresco opens a new era in art.

What Masaccio did was continued by such artists as Andrea Mantegna(1431 -1506) and Sandro Botticelli(1455-1510). The first became famous primarily for its murals, among which a special place is occupied by frescoes telling about the last episodes of the life of St. James - the procession to the execution and the execution itself. Botticelli preferred easel painting. His most famous paintings are Spring and The Birth of Venus.

From the end of the 15th century, when Italian art reaches its highest peak, High Renaissance. For Italy, this period was extremely difficult. Fragmented and therefore defenseless, it was literally devastated, plundered and bled dry by invasions from France, Spain, Germany and Turkey. However, art during this period, oddly enough, is experiencing an unprecedented flowering. It was at this time that such titans as Leonardo da Vinci were creating. Raphael. Michelangelo, Titian.

In architecture, the beginning of the High Renaissance is associated with creativity Donato Bramante(1444-1514). It was he who created the style that determined the development of architecture of this period.

One of his early works became the church of the monastery of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan, in the refectory of which Leonardo da Vinci will write his famous fresco"The Last Supper". Its glory begins with a small chapel called Tempetto(1502), built in Rome and became a kind of "manifesto" of the High Renaissance. The chapel has the shape of a rotunda, it is distinguished by the simplicity of architectural means, the harmony of parts and rare expressiveness. This is a real little masterpiece.

The pinnacle of Bramante's work is the reconstruction of the Vatican and the transformation of its buildings into a single ensemble. He also owns the design of the Cathedral of St. Peter, in which Michelangelo will make changes and begin to implement.

See also: Michelangelo Buonarroti

In art Italian Renaissance occupies a special place Venice. The school that developed here differed significantly from the schools of Florence, Rome, Milan or Bologna. The latter gravitated towards stable traditions and continuity, they were not inclined towards radical renewal. It was on these schools that Classicism XVII V. and neoclassicism of later centuries.

The Venetian school acted as their original counterbalance and antipode. The spirit of innovation and radical, revolutionary renewal reigned here. From representatives of other Italian schools closest to Venice was Leonardo. Perhaps it was here that his passion for research and experiment could find proper understanding and recognition. In the famous dispute between "old and new" artists, the latter relied on the example of Venice. This is where the trends that led to the Baroque and Romanticism began. And although the Romantics honored Raphael, their real gods were Titian and Veronese. In Venice I got my creative charge El Greco, which allowed him to shake the Spanish painting. Velazquez passed through Venice. The same can be said about Flemish artists Rubense and Van Dyke.

Being a port city, Venice found itself at the crossroads of economic and trade routes. She experienced the influence of Northern Germany, Byzantium and the East. Venice has become a place of pilgrimage for many artists. A. Dürer was here twice - at the end of the 15th century. and the beginning of the 16th century. She was visited by Goethe (1790). Wagner here listened to the singing of the gondoliers (1857), under whose inspiration he wrote the second act of Tristan and Isolde. Nietzsche also listened to the singing of the gondoliers, calling it the singing of the soul.

The proximity of the sea evoked fluid and mobile forms, rather than clear geometric structures. Venice gravitated not so much to reason with its strict rules, but to feelings, from which the amazing poetry of Venetian art was born. The focus of this poetry was nature - its visible and felt materiality, a woman - the exciting beauty of her flesh, music - born from the play of colors and light and from the enchanting sounds of spiritualized nature.

The artists of the Venetian school preferred not form and pattern, but color, the play of light and shadow. Depicting nature, they sought to convey its impulses and movement, variability and fluidity. beauty female body they saw not so much in the harmony of forms and proportions as in the most living and sentient flesh.

They were not enough realistic plausibility and reliability. They sought to reveal the riches inherent in painting itself. It is Venice that deserves the merit of discovering a pure pictorial principle, or picturesqueness in its pure form. The Venetian artists were the first to show the possibility of separating picturesqueness from objects and form, the possibility of solving the problems of painting with the help of one color, purely pictorial means, the possibility of considering the picturesque as an end in itself. All subsequent painting, based on expression and expressiveness, will follow this path. According to some experts, one can go from Titian to Rubens and Rembrandt, then to Delacroix, and from him to Gauguin, Van Gogh, Cezanne, etc.

The founder of the Venetian school is Giorgione(1476-1510). In his work, he acted as a true innovator. The secular beginning finally wins for him, and instead of biblical subjects, he prefers to write on mythological and literary themes. In his work, the establishment of an easel painting takes place, which no longer resembles an icon or an altar image.

Giorgione opens a new era in painting, the first to start painting from nature. Depicting nature, for the first time he shifts the focus to mobility, variability and fluidity. An excellent example of this is his painting "Thunderstorm". It was Giorgione who began to search for the secret of painting in light and its transitions, in the play of light and shadow, acting as the forerunner of Caravaggio and Caravaggism.

Giorgione created works of different genres and themes - "Country Concert" and "Judith". His most famous work was "Sleeping Venus"". This picture is devoid of any plot. She sings of the beauty and charm of the naked female body, representing "nudity for the sake of nakedness itself."

The head of the Venetian school is Titian(c. 1489-1576). His work - along with the work of Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo - is the pinnacle of Renaissance art. Most of his long life falls on the Late Renaissance.

In the work of Titian, the art of the Renaissance reaches its highest rise and flourishing. His works combine the creative search and innovation of Leonardo, the beauty and perfection of Raphael, the spiritual depth, drama and tragedy of Michelangelo. They have an extraordinary sensuality, thanks to which they have a powerful effect on the viewer. Titian's works are surprisingly musical and melodic.

As Rubens notes, together with Titian, painting acquired its flavor, and, according to Delacroix and Van Gogh, music. His canvases are painted with an open brushstroke that is both light, free and transparent. It is in his works that color, as it were, dissolves and absorbs form, and the pictorial principle for the first time acquires autonomy, appears in its pure form. Realism in his creations turns into a charming and subtle lyricism.

In the works of the first period, Titian glorifies the carefree joy of life, the enjoyment of earthly goods. He sings of the sensual principle, human flesh bursting with health, the eternal beauty of the body, the physical perfection of man. This is the subject of his canvases such as "Love on Earth and Heaven", "Feast of Venus", "Bacchus and Ariadne", "Danae", "Venus and Adonis".

Sensual beginning prevails in the picture "Penitent Magdalene”, although it is dedicated to the dramatic situation. But here, too, the penitent sinner has sensual flesh, a captivating, radiant body, full and sensual lips, ruddy cheeks, and golden hair. The canvas “Boy with Dogs” is filled with penetrating lyricism.

In the works of the second period, the sensual principle is preserved, but it is supplemented by growing psychologism and drama. In general, Titian makes a gradual transition from the physical and sensual to the spiritual and dramatic. The ongoing changes in the work of Titian are clearly visible when embodying themes and plots that the great artist addressed twice. A typical example in this regard is the painting "Saint Sebastian". In the first version, the fate of a lonely sufferer abandoned by people does not seem too sad. On the contrary, the depicted saint is endowed with vitality and physical beauty. In a later version of the picture, located in the Hermitage, the same image acquires the features of tragedy.

More a prime example can serve as variants of the painting "Coronation with Thorns", dedicated to an episode from the life of Christ. In the first of them, stored in the Louvre. Christ appears as a physically handsome and strong athlete, able to repulse his rapists. In the Munich version, created twenty years later, the same episode is conveyed much deeper, more complex and more meaningful. Christ is depicted in a white cloak, his eyes are closed, he calmly endures the beating and humiliation. Now the main thing is not crowning and beating, not physical phenomenon but psychological and spiritual. The picture is filled with deep tragedy, it expresses the triumph of the spirit, spiritual nobility over physical strength.

In the later works of Titian, the tragic sound is more and more intensified. This is evidenced by the painting “Lamentation of Christ”.

The human body was the main source of inspiration and object of study for Renaissance artists, and the emphasis was on the similarity of works of painting and sculpture with reality.

Skillful use of the brush, complex compositions, perspective (three-dimensional painting), color, light, radiance, the play of light and shadow, emotionality and scrupulousness in work, all these were the main characteristics of the art of the Renaissance. Mythological and biblical characters were the main ones for the artists of that period.

Sculpture of folds of clothes. "Exercise in Depicting a Seated Figure" by Leonardo da Vinci. Photo courtesy of the Art Renewal Center The human body was a major source of inspiration and research in Renaissance art. The resemblance to reality reached such an extent that the characters depicted in the works seemed alive, in contrast to the art of the twentieth century, where, for example, in the paintings of Georges Seurat, people are more like fossils.

For artists and scientists, the human body is an endless source. They constantly improve their knowledge and skills by studying the human body. Physical perfection reflected the then prevailing notion that man was created in the image and likeness of God. The gods were indeed personified and depicted as people, with features that were more human, in contrast to the works of art of the Middle Ages.

The gods were important and main subjects of Renaissance art. What influenced the artists who portrayed the gods? How did it affect the culture of that time?

It is interesting to note that the Renaissance (“Renaissance” in French - renaissance), which lasted from the end of the 14th century to the 17th century, was a period when progress was observed in various fields: the discovery of America, scientific discoveries, the exploration of new materials, minerals and products (eg tea and cocoa). The initial elements of ballet appeared in dances. Religion was central to social regulation and daily life. The same religion later became an excuse for committing atrocities and violating basic human values.

The spread of the white man to other continents, the colonization and enslavement of the natives and their natural resources raises moral questions. One can see a strong contrast between enslavement and a flourishing art steeped in spirituality and the worship of beauty.

In the art itself, in the technique of drawing and in painting, the main requirement for artists was skill the highest degree. Painters and sculptors constantly improved their skills. Art was a profession and artists continued to improve their skills even after they became famous.

Improving the methods of representation and perspective led to a gradual transition from the art of the Middle Ages to the Renaissance.

Nature has also been given great attention. Landscapes usually include rich and varied vegetation. Blue-blue skies, pierced by the rays of the sun penetrating through white clouds, were a magnificent backdrop for the soaring divine beings.

The transfer of light and shadow, the radiance of pearls and metal (swords, jewelry and vases), the detailed depiction of fabrics with graceful folds by Renaissance artists is a real breakthrough in painting.

The artists of that time worshiped the beauty of the human body, this was manifested in the exquisitely precise details of the body and muscles and the understanding of their motor skills. Complex poses, gestures and facial expressions, harmonious and expressive colors - all this is characteristic of the work of painters and sculptors of that period: Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Rembrandt, Titian, etc.

Renaissance art represented by masters of painting, sculpture and architecture and their immortal works is for all mankind a model of uncompromising diligence and high spirituality, striving for the highest values ​​of mankind.

Renaissance art

The Renaissance is the heyday of all the arts (Theater, Music, painting, architecture, Literature, etc.). I will talk about literature and fine arts.

Renaissance literature- a major trend in literature, an integral part of the entire culture of the Renaissance. Occupies the period from the XIV to the XVI century. It differs from medieval literature in that it is based on new, progressive ideas of humanism. Synonymous with the Renaissance is the term "Renaissance", of French origin. The ideas of humanism originate for the first time in Italy, and then spread throughout Europe. Also, the literature of the Renaissance spread throughout Europe, but acquired in each individual country its own national character. The term Renaissance means renewal, the appeal of artists, writers, thinkers to the culture and art of antiquity, the imitation of its high ideals.

The concept of humanism

The concept of "humanism" was put into use by scientists of the 19th century. It comes from the Latin humanitas ( human nature, spiritual culture) and humanus (human), and denotes an ideology directed towards a person. In the Middle Ages, there was a religious and feudal ideology.

In the Renaissance, there was a departure from the feudal-church ideology, there were ideas of emancipation of the individual, assertion of the high dignity of man, as a free creator of earthly happiness. Ideas became decisive in the development of culture as a whole, influenced the development of art, literature, music, science, and were reflected in politics. Humanism is a worldview of a secular nature, anti-dogmatic and anti-scholastic. The development of humanism begins in the 14th century, in the work of humanists such as Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, and others. In the 16th century, the process of developing a new worldview slows down due to the impact of feudal Catholic reaction. It is replaced by the Reformation.

Renaissance literature in general

Speaking of the Renaissance, we are talking directly about Italy, as the bearer of the main part ancient culture, and about the so-called Northern Renaissance, which took place in the countries northern Europe: France, England, Germany, Netherlands, Spain and Portugal.

The literature of the Renaissance is characterized by the humanistic ideals already outlined above. This era is associated with the emergence of new genres and with the formation of early realism, which is called so, "Renaissance realism" (or Renaissance), in contrast to the later stages, enlightenment, critical, socialist.

In the work of such authors as Petrarch, Rabelais, Shakespeare, Cervantes, a new understanding of life is expressed by a person who rejects the slavish obedience that the church preaches. They represent man as the highest creation of nature, trying to reveal the beauty of his physical appearance and the richness of his soul and mind. The realism of the Renaissance is characterized by the scale of the images (Hamlet, King Lear), the poeticization of the image, the ability to have a great feeling and at the same time the high intensity of the tragic conflict (“Romeo and Juliet”), reflecting the clash of a person with forces hostile to him.

Renaissance literature is characterized by various genres. But certain literary forms prevailed. The most popular genre was the short story, which is called the Renaissance short story. In poetry, it becomes the most characteristic form of a sonnet (a stanza of 14 lines with a certain rhyme). Dramaturgy is developing a lot. The most prominent playwrights of the Renaissance are Lope de Vega in Spain and Shakespeare in England.

Journalism and philosophical prose are widespread. In Italy, Giordano Bruno denounces the church in his works, creates his own new philosophical concepts. In England, Thomas More expresses the ideas of utopian communism in his book Utopia. Widely known are such authors as Michel de Montaigne ("Experiments") and Erasmus of Rotterdam ("Praise of Stupidity").

Among the writers of that time are also crowned persons. Poems are written by Duke Lorenzo de Medici, and Marguerite of Navarre, sister of King Francis I of France, is known as the author of the Heptameron collection.

Fine arts of the renaissance

The first forerunners of Renaissance art appeared in Italy in the 14th century. The artists of this time, Pietro Cavallini (1259-1344), Simone Martini (1284-1344) and (primarily) Giotto (1267-1337), when creating paintings of traditional religious themes, repelled from the tradition of international gothic (Distinctive features of the painting of international gothic: colorfulness , sophistication and decorativeness, exaltation, sophistication.), however, they began to use new artistic techniques: building a three-dimensional composition, using a landscape in the background, which allowed them to make images more realistic and lively. This sharply distinguished their work from the previous iconographic tradition, replete with conventions in the image. The term Proto-Renaissance is used to refer to their work.

Various centuries in the history of Italian art have names derived from the corresponding numerals:

ducento - 1200s. From Italian. ducento (two hundred). International Gothic.

trecento - 1300s. From Italian. trecento (three hundred). Proto-Renaissance.

quattrocento - 1400s. From Italian. quattrocento (four hundred). Early Renaissance, High Renaissance.

cinquecento - 1500s. From Italian. cinquecento (five hundred). End of the High Renaissance, Late Renaissance.

Early Renaissance

At the beginning of the 15th century, Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), a Florentine scientist and architect, discovered and described the laws of linear perspective in painting. This allowed the artists to get perfect images of three-dimensional space on a flat canvas of the picture.

Another important step was the emergence of non-religious, secular art. Portrait and landscape established themselves as independent genres. Even religious subjects acquired a different interpretation - Renaissance artists began to consider their characters as heroes with pronounced individual traits and human motivation for actions.

The most famous artists of this period are Masaccio (1401-1428), Masolino (1383-1440), Benozzo Gozzoli (1420-1497), Piero Della Francesco (1420-1492), Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), Niccolò Pizzolo (1421- 1453), Giovanni Bellini (1430-1516), Antonello da Messina (1430-1479), Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449-1494), Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510).

Sculpture has become widespread. Many forms were developed in the work of sculptors: a statue, a relief, a bust, etc. They reached new heights in depicting the plasticity of the human body: emotions, body movements, complex scenes in multifaceted, perspective reliefs. The most famous sculptors of this period are Donatello (1386-1466) and Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381-1456).

High Renaissance

The highest flowering of Renaissance art came in the first quarter of the 16th century, which was called the "High Renaissance". Works by Sansovino (1486-1570), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael Santi (1483-1520), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564), Giorgione (1476-1510), Titian (1477-1576), Antonio Correggio ( 1489-1534) constitute the golden fund of European art.

Approaching painting from the point of view of a naturalist, Leonardo da Vinci achieved great skill in conveying the facial expressions of the face and body of a person, ways of conveying space, and building a composition. At the same time, his works create a harmonious image of a person that meets humanistic ideals. In the future, these innovations were developed by Rafael Santi.

Paintings and sculptures by Michelangelo Buonarroti are full of heroic pathos and, at the same time, a tragic sense of the crisis of humanism. His paintings glorify the strength and power of man, the beauty of his body, while emphasizing his loneliness in the world.

The work of Giorgione and Titian is distinguished by an interest in the landscape, the poeticization of the plot. Both artists achieved great skill in the art of portraiture, with the help of which they conveyed character and richness. inner world their characters.

Late Renaissance

After the sack of Rome by imperial troops in 1527, the Italian Renaissance entered a period of crisis. Already in the work of the late Raphael, a new artistic line is outlined, called mannerism. This era is characterized by overstretched and broken lines, elongated or even deformed figures, often naked, tension and unnatural poses, unusual or bizarre effects associated with size, lighting or perspective, the use of a caustic chromatic scale, overloaded composition, etc. The first masters mannerism - Parmigianino, Pontormo, Bronzino - lived and worked at the court of the dukes of the Medici house in Florence. Later, Mannerist fashion spread throughout Italy and beyond. In the 1590s, Mannerism was replaced by Baroque art (transitional figures - Tintoretto and El Greco)

Northern Renaissance

The artists who lived north of the Alps did not have samples of ancient art before their eyes. The archaeological dimension of the Italian Renaissance, which consisted in the study of the newly discovered monuments of antiquity, was completely alien to them. The traditions and skills of Gothic art were preserved here for a long time, less attention was paid to the study of ancient inheritance and knowledge of human anatomy. Portraits of northern artists (for example, Holbein) lack the harmonization and idealization of reality that are characteristic of their southern counterparts; in their realism they reach pre-naturalism. On the other hand, they do not break with the elements of folk, peasant life and folklore traditions; The work of Pieter Brueghel the Elder is especially revealing in this respect.

At the junction of international Gothic and pre-Renaissance trends in the Burgundian Netherlands in the 1st half of the 15th century, Old Dutch art was born. Complicated iconography and intricate symbolism were combined with the utmost attention to the details of domestic use. The transition from tempera to oil painting allowed the artist to convey the diversity, depth and brilliance of the objective world more clearly and versatilely. All these achievements are associated with the names of Robert Campin and his students - the brothers van Eykovy and Rogier van der Weyden. In the second half of the century, remnants of the Gothic and Italian influences were intricately intertwined in Memling's work.

Although in Italy the Quattrocento era followed with interest the achievements of Dutch artists, Italian influence began to penetrate these parts only in the 16th century, when the Bavarian Albrecht Durer went to Venice to improve his art, and in the Netherlands the school of Antwerp Mannerism was formed, to which he belonged, in particular , Mabuse. With the beginning of the Reformation, religious painting in northern Europe was banned, but new genres began to form, based not so much on rethinking the artistic achievements of previous generations (as in Italy), but on direct observation of nature - namely, landscape, still life, genre painting.