Dutch still life inspires and contemporary artists, at one time it was a kind of breakthrough that could not go unnoticed. The Dutch still life is interesting not only for connoisseurs of painting, I invite you to enjoy the paintings and history.
The Dutch still life had several directions, for example, images of game and a beaten bird were very popular, this belonged to the category “Hunting trophies”, now it seems to me that these “amateur” still lifes are not very pleasant to look at animal carcasses, but in the 17th century this was easier to relate to.
Melchior de Hondekuter "Hunting Trophies"
Another direction of the Dutch still life is Breakfast and Desserts, images of cooked food, which is more pleasant, often in the paintings one could see seafood, poultry, an abundance of fruits.
BALTHAZAR VAN DER AST "Plate with fruits and shells" 1630 g
The most pleasing trend of 17th-century Dutch still life is Flowers and Fruit, which could be depicted together in one painting, almost always in the paintings there is an image of insects, often butterflies.
BALTHASAR VAN DER AST "Still life with fruit"
Dutch still life symbolic meaning, it was not just an image of products, flowers, etc. the main idea that was characteristic of the Dutch still life of that time was the transience of everything earthly and the inevitability of death. With the help of symbolic objects such as clocks, withering roses, a candle, artists said that nothing lasts forever in this world. In addition, some objects indicated habits condemned by morality, such as a smoking pipe, or intrigue through writing, musical tools, etc. Unfortunately, in modern painting, symbolism has been lost, and even experts in painting cannot explain the meaning of all symbols Dutch painting 17th century. And in those distant times, the Dutch gathered in the evenings in the house of the owner of a still life, examined it and discussed what this or that symbol means: faded Laurel wreath- transience of fame, coins-vanity, etc.
Jan Davids de Heem 
Jan Davids de Heem
Please note that the pictures Dutch artists In the 17th century, flowers seem to be drawn from nature, but this was not always the case, because the compositions consist of flowering and fruiting plants at different times. During the flowering period of the plant, artists carefully painted it in different lighting, in different angles etc., it was a blank, which was then used many times in their still lifes by artists. In order to enrich their still lifes, Dutch artists went to make flower drawings in the gardens of famous flower lovers in Amsterdam, Brussels, Leiden, etc.
Flower still lifes in Holland were popular among the nobles and nobility, almost every flower still life of the 17th century in Holland featured tulips, while the country was experiencing a tulip boom. A house could be mortgaged for a rare tulip bulb, growing tulips was considered the privilege of aristocrats. There is a known case when a miller exchanged his mill for one tulip bulb, a tulip bulb was considered a good dowry. Tulips at that time were one-color, less often two-colored. Now you can understand why tulips are often met in the still lifes of Dutch artists.
Jan Davids de Heem 
Jan Davids de Heem
One of the most famous artists who wrote dutch still life was Jan Davidsz de Heem, his paintings were very popular. His paintings were distinguished by richness of colors, realism, and a high degree of color transparency.
Some of the most beautiful Dutch still lifes by Jan Davidsz de Heem.
Willem Klas Hedda. Still life with a pie, 1627
The "golden" age of still life was the 17th century, when it finally took shape as independent genre painting, especially in the work of the Dutch and Flemish artists. At the same time, the term “quiet, frozen life” appeared to refer to still lifes (Dutch stilleven, German Stilleben, English still-life). The first “stilleven” were simple in plot, but even then the objects depicted on them also carried a semantic load: bread, a glass of wine, fish are symbols of Christ, a knife is a symbol of sacrifice, a lemon is a symbol of unquenched thirst; nuts in a shell - a soul bound by sin; the apple reminds of the fall.
Gradually, the symbolic language of the picture was enriched.
Franciscus Geisbrechts, 17th century
The symbols found on the canvases were intended to remind of the frailty of human life and the transience of pleasures and achievements:
The skull is a reminder of the inevitability of death.
Rotten fruits are a symbol of aging.
Ripe fruits symbolize fertility, abundance, in figuratively wealth and prosperity.
A number of fruits have their own meaning: the fall is denoted by pears, tomatoes, citrus fruits, grapes, peaches and cherries, and of course, an apple. Figs, plums, cherries, apples or peaches have erotic overtones.
Grain sprouts, branches of ivy or laurel (rare) - a symbol of rebirth and the cycle of life.
Sea shells, sometimes live snails - the shell of a mollusk is the remains of a once living animal, it means death and frailty.
The creeping snail is the personification of the deadly sin of laziness.
Large mollusks denote the duality of nature, a symbol of lust, another of the deadly sins.
Soap bubbles - brevity of life and suddenness of death; a reference to the expression homo bulla - "a man is a soap bubble."
Extinguishing smoking candle (cinder end) or oil lamp; a cap for extinguishing candles - a burning candle is a symbol human soul, its fading symbolizes departure.
cups, playing cards or bones, chess (rare) - a sign of an erroneous life purpose, seeking pleasure and a sinful life. Equality of opportunity in gambling also meant reprehensible anonymity.
A smoking pipe is a symbol of fleeting and elusive earthly pleasures.
Carnival mask - is a sign of the absence of a person inside it. Also intended for a festive masquerade, irresponsible pleasure.
Mirrors, glass (mirror) balls - a mirror is a symbol of vanity, in addition, it is also a sign of reflection, shadow, and not a real phenomenon.
Beyeren. Still Life with Lobster, 1667
Broken dishes, usually glass goblets. An empty glass, opposed to a full one, symbolizes death.
Glass symbolizes fragility, snow-white porcelain - purity.
The mortar and pestle are symbols of male and female sexuality.
The bottle is a symbol of the sin of drunkenness.
Knife - reminds of the vulnerability of a person and his mortality.
Hourglass and mechanical clock - the transience of time.
Musical instruments, notes - the brevity and ephemeral nature of life, a symbol of the arts.
Books and geographic Maps(mappa mundi), writing pen - a symbol of the sciences. A globe, both the earth and the starry sky.
A palette with brushes, a laurel wreath (usually on the head of a skull) are symbols of painting and poetry.
Letters symbolize human relationships.
Medical instruments are a reminder of diseases and frailty of the human body.
Coin purses, jewelry boxes - jewelry and cosmetics are designed to create beauty, female attractiveness, at the same time they are associated with vanity, narcissism and the mortal sin of arrogance. They also signal the absence of their owners on the canvas.
Weapons and armor are a symbol of power and might, a designation of what cannot be taken with you to the grave.
Crowns and papal tiaras, scepters and powers, wreaths of leaves are signs of transient earthly domination, which is opposed to the heavenly world order. Like masks, they symbolize the absence of those who wore them.
Keys - symbolize the power of a housewife who manages stocks.
Ruins - symbolize the transient life of those who once inhabited them.
Insects, birds and animals were often depicted in still lifes. Flies and spiders, for example, were considered symbols of stinginess and evil, and lizards and snakes were considered symbols of deceit. Crayfish or lobsters personified the vicissitudes of fate or wisdom.
Jacques André Joseph Aved. About 1670.
The book - the tragedy of Sophocles "Electra" - in this case, the symbol is ambiguous. By placing it in the composition, the artist recalls the inevitability of retribution for any crime not on earth, but in heaven, since tragedy is permeated with this thought. The antique motif in such still lifes often symbolized the continuity of art. On title page stands the name of the translator, the famous Dutch poet Jost van den Vondel, whose works on ancient and biblical subjects were so topical that he was even persecuted. It is unlikely that the artist placed Vondel by chance - it is possible that, speaking of the vanity of the world, he decided to mention the vanity of power.
The sword and helmet are the emblem of transient military glory.
White with red plume - composition center paintings. Feathers always mean vanity and vanity. The picture is dated by the helmet with the plume. Lodewijk van der Helst in 1670 depicted in such a helmet on the posthumous portrait of Admiral Sterlingwerf. The admiral's helmet is present in several more still lifes by van Streck.
Portrait of a sanguine. Unlike oil, sanguine is very poorly preserved, as is paper, in contrast to canvas. This sheet speaks of the futility of the artist's efforts, worn and torn edges are designed to reinforce this idea.
Golden fringe is the vanity of luxury.
Skull - in ancient culture attribute of Kronos (Saturn), that is, a symbol of time. The Wheel of Fortune was also depicted with a skull. For Christians, it is a sign of worldly vanity, mental contemplation of death, an attribute of hermit life. With him depicted St. Francis of Assisi, St. Jerome, Mary Magdalene, the Apostle Paul. The skull is also a symbol eternal life Christ crucified on Calvary, where, according to legend, the skull of Adam was buried. An ear wrapped around a skull is a symbol of the immortality of the soul (“I am the bread of life” - John 6:48), hope for eternal life.
A stack of shabby papers is the vanity of knowledge.
Powder horn on a chain - very characteristic subject for a Dutch still life. Here, apparently, it should be interpreted as something bringing death, as opposed to cornucopia
Adrian van Utrecht."Vanitas". 1642.
lilies of the valley, violets, forget-me-nots surrounded by roses, carnations, anemones - symbols of modesty and purity;
a large flower in the center of the composition is the “crown of virtue”;
crumbling petals near the vase are signs of frailty;
a withered flower is a hint of the disappearance of feelings;
irises - a sign of the Virgin;
white roses - platonic love and a symbol of purity;
red roses - a symbol of passionate love and a symbol of the Virgin;
red flowers are a symbol of the atoning sacrifice of Christ;
white lily not only beautiful flower, but also a symbol of the purity of the Virgin Mary;
blue and blue flowers- a reminder of the azure sky;
thistle - a symbol of evil;
carnation - a symbol of the shed blood of Christ;
poppy - an allegory of sleep, oblivion, a symbol of one of the deadly sins - laziness;
anemone - help in illness;
tulips - a symbol of rapidly disappearing beauty, the cultivation of these flowers was considered one of the most vain and futile activities; tulip also symbolized love, sympathy, mutual understanding; white tulip - false love, red tulip - passionate love (in Europe and America, the tulip is associated with spring, light, life, colors and is considered a cozy friendly flower, in Iran, Turkey and other countries of the East, the tulip associated with feelings of love and erotica).
Pieter Klass "Breakfast with Ham" 1647
Experts say that each still life carries its own hidden meaning which was understandable to contemporaries. And we can only guess about what and to whom the artist wanted to say.
G Dutch still life of the 17th century is characterized by a narrow specialization Dutch masters within the genre. The theme "Flowers and Fruits" includes, as a rule, a variety of insects. "Hunting trophies" are, first of all, hunting trophies - dead birds and game. "Breakfasts" and "Desserts", as well as images of fish - alive and sleeping, various birds - are only a part of the most famous themes of still lifes.
In their totality, these individual plots characterize the close interest of the Dutch in the plots Everyday life, and their favorite pastimes, and passion for the exotic of distant lands (there are outlandish shells and fruits in the compositions). Often in works with motives of "living" and "dead" nature, symbolic overtones, easily understandable to an educated spectator of the 17th century.
Thus, the combination of individual objects could serve as a hint at the frailty of earthly existence: withering roses, an incense burner, a candle, a watch; or associated with habits condemned by morality: torches, smoking pipes; or pointed to love affair; writing, musical instruments, brazier. There is no doubt that the meaning of these compositions is much wider than their symbolic content.
Dutch still lifes attract, first of all, with their artistic expressiveness, completeness, and the ability to reveal the spiritual life of the objective world.
Unlike the Flemings, who prefer large-sized paintings with an abundance of all kinds of objects, the Dutch painters limit themselves to a few objects of contemplation, striving for the ultimate compositional and color unity. Still life ("Stilleven" - which in Dutch means - " quiet life”) is a peculiar and quite popular branch of Dutch painting.
17th century Dutch still life
Pieter Klass "Pipe and Brazier" 1636
Balthasar van der Ast "Still Life with Fruit"
Balthasar van der Ast "Plate with fruits and shells" 1630
Melchior de Hondekuter "Birds in the Park"
Bartholomeus van der Hels "New Market in Amsterdam" 1666
Willem Klass Hedp "Breakfast with Crab" 1648
Ferdinand Bol "Bad Game"
Abraham Mignon "Fruits"
Melchior de Hondekuter "Hunting Trophies"
Johannes Lemans "Hunting Still Life"
Martin Bullema de Stomme. "Still Life with Nautilus Cup"
Willem Heda. "Still Life with Ham". 1656
Jan Brueghel the Elder. "Flowers in a wooden vase". 1606/07
Ambrosius Bosshart the Elder. "Bouquet of flowers in a niche." 1618
Balthasar van der Ast. "Basket of flowers". 1622
Hans Bollongier. "Flower Still Life". 1639
Nicholas Gillis. "Laid table". 1611
Floris van Dijk. "Still life with cheese". OK. 1615
Jacob van Huelsdonk. Still Life with Artichokes, Radishes, Asparagus, Plums and Peaches in a Basket. 1608-1647
Clara Peters. "Served table". 1611
Willem Claesz Heda. "Still life with a silver jug and a pie." 1645
Peter Klas. "Still life with salt shaker". OK. 1644
Gerrit Willems Heda. "Still life with earthenware jug"
Floris Gerrits van Schoten. Still Life with Fruit, Vegetables and a Supper Scene at Emmaus. 1630
Cornelis Delff. "Kitchen Still Life" 1610-1620
Having gone through a series of stages, each of which had its own specific and peculiar significance, the Dutch still life widely embraced the world of things and organic nature. From the first stage in the work of artists of the beginning of the century, with the fixation of the things exhibited, as it were, for show, the painters of the next generation moved on to modest “breakfasts” with metal and metal grouped on a white tablecloth. glass objects(Klas, Kheda). These "breakfasts" are distinguished by the simplicity of the things depicted: a bun, pewter dishes, glass vessels- these are the main components of images sustained in a grayish colorful range. A few fish in the paintings of Ormea and Putter, a kitchen still life by Rotterdam artists reflect the modest puritanical tastes of the democratic strata in the first half of the century.
But with the establishment of the republican system and the subsequent strengthening of the power of the bourgeois class, and then its gradual aristocratization, the requirements for art also change. Still life loses its modest, simple character. "Breakfasts" become more luxurious and magnificent, striking with the richness of color. They are now built on a combination of warm tones of carpet tablecloths and Delft faience laid out on dishes or Chinese porcelain orange, yellow, red fruits, animated by the sparkle of gilded goblets and glass goblets, on the surface of which light plays. Evidence of full ownership of the transfer of material and lighting, saturated with color, the still lifes of Kalf, Beieren, Streck characterize the time of the highest flowering of still life.
Not only time influenced the subject matter and the formation of still life, but also many other things: local features, the economic structure typical of a particular city, often determines the subject matter and even the interpretation of the work. local artist. It is by no means accidental that in rapidly developing Haarlem, with its strong associations of townspeople, the type of tonal still life, and in the center of the economic and cultural life Holland - Amsterdam - the activities of the creators of luxurious desserts Kalf and Streck proceeded. The proximity of the Scheveningen coast inspired Beieren, who lives in The Hague, to create a still life with fish, and in the university center - Leiden - a thoughtful still life appeared with the image of a skull and an hourglass, which should remind of the frailty of earthly existence. Pictures were immediately distributed depicting a scientist surrounded by folios, globes and other items of scientific use, often filling the entire foreground.
A strict division of still lifes into genres is impossible, since often several motifs were combined in one picture, however, the most common genres can be distinguished.
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Dutch still life.
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flower still life
In floral still lifes, artists depicted tulips, roses, gladioli, hyacinths, carnations, lilies, irises, lilies of the valley, forget-me-nots, violets, violas, daisies, nigella, rosemary, anemones, calendula, levkoy, mallow and other flowers.
One of the first artists of the seventeenth century who painted vases with flowers was Jacob (Jacques) de Gheyn the Younger (1565-1629). His work is characterized by an elongated vertical format of paintings, a multi-tiered arrangement of flowers with alternating large and small plants, as well as the use of techniques that will become very popular among artists. this genre: embedding a bouquet of flowers in a niche and an image next to a vase of small animals.
The appearance of insects, animals and birds, shells in flower still lifes as auxiliary details is a reflection of the tradition of using the hidden meanings of depicted objects that have symbolic meaning. Various symbols appear in still lifes of all genres.
The followers of Jacob de Gein the Younger were Jan Baptist van Fornenburg (1585-1649) and Jacob Wauters Vosmar (1584-1641).
Fornenburg painted bouquets of tulips, daffodils, roses, physalis, while in his paintings there are motifs of "vanity vanities" and the classic "trick".
characteristic feature Vosmar's paintings also include the motif of "vanity of vanities" in the form of a drooping rose. Often he depicted in still lifes a fly, a nettle butterfly, a cabbage butterfly, a dragonfly and a bee.
The founder of a whole dynasty of masters of still lifes with flowers and fruits was Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (1573-1621). The dynasty included three sons (Johannes, Abraham and Ambrosius), two brothers-in-law (Johannes and Balthasar van der Asty) and a son-in-law (Jeronymus Sweerts).
Bosschaert wrote small still lifes with a bouquet in a vase (in some cases it was a vase made of Chinese porcelain), placed in a niche or on a window sill. As an entourage in his paintings, in addition to small animals, there are shells.
Among the sons of Bosschaert, the talent of the artist manifested itself most clearly in Johannes Bosschaert (1610/11 - after 1629). Distinctive features of his work - the arrangement of objects along the diagonal of the picture and the matte-metallic coloring.
Ambrosius Bosschaert the Younger (1609-1645) used the techniques of black and white modeling of the Utrecht caravagists.
Abraham Bosschaert (1612/1613 - 1643) copied the techniques of his brothers.
The brothers of Ambrosius Bosschaert's wife, Johannes and Balthasar van der Asta, continued the traditions of Bosschaert.
Only one painting by Johannes van der Ast is known.
Of great importance for the development of still life was the work of the eldest of the brothers - Baltasar van der Ast (1593/1594 - 1657), who left a rich creative heritage- more than 125 paintings. He liked to depict a basket of flowers or a dish of fruit on the table, and in the foreground along the edge of the table he placed shells, fruits and butterflies. Some of his paintings feature parrots.
Roelant Saverey (1576-1639) belongs to the school of Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder. His still lifes are built on the principle of a bouquet of flowers located in a niche. He added motifs of “vanity of vanities” to the paintings, as an entourage, a gravedigger beetle, a dung fly, a dead head butterfly and other insects, as well as lizards were used.
The work of Ambrosius Bosschaert influenced such artists as Anthony Claes I (1592-1636), his namesake Anthony Claes II (1606/1608 - 1652) and son-in-law of Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder - Hieronymus Swerts.
In the work of Hans Bollongier (circa 1600 - after 1670), the techniques of Utrecht caravaggism were widely used. With the help of chiaroscuro, the artist singled out flowers against the background of twilight.
Further development of the flower still life was observed in the works of the Middelburg masters: Christoffel van den Berghe (circa 1590 - after 1642), who depicted elements of the “vanity of vanities” in flower still lifes: a bottle of wine, a snuffbox, a smoking pipe, playing cards and a skull; and Johannes Goodart, who widely used insects and birds as entourage.
The school of the Dordrecht masters of flower still life includes Bartholomeus Abrahams Asstein (1607 (?) - 1667 or later), Abraham van Calrath (1642-1722), father of the famous landscape and animal painter Albert Cuyp Jacob Gerrits Cuyp (1594 - 1651/1652). Their work is characterized by the widespread use of chiaroscuro.
"Served tables" ("Breakfasts", "Desserts", "Banquets")
The homeland and center of "served tables" was Haarlem. The prerequisite for the creation of this type of still life was the widespread use of portraits of members of shooting guilds during a banquet in the 16th century. Gradually, the image of the laid table became an independent genre.
The set of items that make up the still life originally included traditional Dutch products: cheese, ham, buns, fruit, and beer. However, later in still lifes, more and more dishes characteristic of solemn occasions or tables of wealthy townspeople began to appear: game, wine, pies (the most expensive was blackberry pie). In addition to the traditional herring, lobsters, shrimps, and oysters appeared.
Expensive dishes made of silver and Chinese porcelain, jugs, and dances began to be used. The artists paid special attention to glasses: römer, Berkemeier, pass-glass, flute-glass, Venetian glass, akeley-glass. The most exquisite was the nautilus goblet.
Frequent attributes of still lifes were a salt shaker and a table knife. A half-peeled lemon was often used as a colorful spot.
One of the earliest still lifes showing Dutch table setting is The Set Table by Nicholas Gillis (circa 1580 - after 1632). The artist used an elevated point of view in his paintings.
Still life paintings by Floris Gerrits van Schoten (circa 1590 - after 1655) are characterized by complexity, he used a large number of objects, and the main subject was often a slide of cheeses. In a number of cases, he used the technique of moving the accent of the still life group away from geometric center paintings.
A significant figure in this type of still life painting was Floris van Dyck (1575-1651). The center of his paintings was a pyramid of cheeses, the background was dissolved in a haze.
Clara Peters (1594-1657) specialized in the same type of still life. She often depicted expensive gourmet dishes, lobsters and oysters. In some of her still lifes, she used a lowered point of view, almost at the level of the table.
Compositions close to Peters were created by Hans van Essen (1587/1589 - after 1648).
Rulof Coots (1592/1593 - 1655) used the technique of deliberate negligence, the plate or knife in his paintings hung halfway from the edge of the table. He was one of the first to create canvases depicting not a laid table, but a table with traces of an over breakfast, introducing motifs of “vanity of vanities” into the paintings: clocks, books, fallen grapes.
On early stage of his work created paintings of this genre and Peter Klas.
Tonal still life
At the head of the tonal Dutch still life were Pieter Klas and Willem Klas Heda, who lived in Haarlem.
The tradition of depicting the mistress of the house, the cook or servants has been preserved, although they have increasingly moved to the background. In the foreground were kitchen utensils and meat, fish and many vegetables brought into the kitchen: pumpkin, turnip, rutabaga, cabbage, carrots, peas, beans, onions and cucumbers. Do more wealthy people appeared on the table cauliflower, melons, artichokes and asparagus.
Pieter Cornelis van Rijk (1568-1628) painted in the tradition of the 16th century, sometimes with biblical scenes in the background.
Cornelis Jacobs Delff (1571-1643) used an elevated vantage point and liked to place kitchen utensils in the foreground.
The well-known master of “laid tables” Floris Gerrits van Schoten also painted kitchen scenes, sometimes he included genre motifs in his still lifes.
Cornelis Pieters Begi (1631/1632 - 1664) went even further, including a satyr who came to visit the peasants in his still life.
Genre and portrait painter Gottfried Schalken (1643-1706) depicted a pantry with barrels of wine and supplies.
group of craftsmen household genre the brothers Cornelis and Hermann Saftlevens (1607/1608 - 1681 and 1609-1685), Pieter de Blot (1601-1658), Hendrik Martens Sorg (1611-1670) and Eckbert van der Poel (1621-1664) also painted "kitchen" still lifes with genre motifs, but household items dominated in their paintings.
Close to the works of Rotterdam genre painters are the still lifes of the famous master of "peasant breakfasts" Philips Angel.
In contrast to the artists who depicted the kitchens of a wealthy burgher with its cleanliness and order, Francois Reykhals (after 1600 - 1647) painted poor peasant kitchens.
More than 60 of his works were devoted to the theme of the kitchen still life by the famous master of "luxurious" still lifes, Willem Kalf.
"Fish" still life
The Hague became the cradle of still life with fish. The proximity of Scheveningen disposed artists not only to write marines, but also to create special kind still life painting - paintings depicting fish and marine animals.
The founders of this type of still life were: Pieter de Putter, Pieter van Scheyenborg and Pieter van Noort.
Pieter de Pütter (1600-1659) chose a high point of view, from which a table with fish is clearly visible, sometimes a net was added to the still life.
Pieter van Scheyenborg (? - after 1657) painted fish on a gray or tan background.
The paintings of Pieter van Noort (circa 1600 - ?), who colorfully conveyed the brilliance of the scales, had a special color.
Abraham van Beijeren (1620/1621 - 1690) became the main representative of this direction of painting, who also worked in many other genres of still life and also painted marinas. He depicted fish both on the table and on the seashore.
Perhaps van Beieren's student was Isaac van Duynen (1628 - 1677/1681).
The landscape painter Albert Cuyp (1620-1691) can also be counted among the masters of the "fish" still life.
Utrecht masters Willem Ormea (1611-1673) and his student Jacob Gillig (circa 1630-1701) were fond of "fish" still life.
"Vanity of vanities" (Vanitas, Memento mori, "learned" still life)
important place V Dutch painting occupied a philosophical and moralistic still life, which received Latin name"vanitas" ("vanity of vanities").
“In the ideological foundations of this direction, the medieval performances about the frailty of everything earthly, the moralizing tendencies of Calvinism and the humanistic ideal of a wise man striving for truth and beauty.
The most common symbols of frailty in the “vanity of vanities” still lifes were: a skull, an extinguished candle, clocks, books, musical instruments, withered flowers, an overturned or broken dishes, playing cards and dice, smoking pipes, soap bubbles, seals, globe, etc. Sometimes the artist included in the work a sheet of parchment with a Latin saying on the theme "vanity of vanities."
The first still life of the 17th century that has come down to us, belonging to the genre of "vanity of vanities", was written by Jacob de Gein the Younger.
“In the upper part of the niche, on the capitals of the pylons flanking it, there are sculptural images of a female and male figures, and on the keystone of the arch of the niche there is a Latin inscription: “HUMANA VANA”, which can be translated as “human fuss is in vain”. This motto allows us to understand the symbolism of the figures, of which the first, as if warning about the ephemeral nature of the soap sphere, points to it with a finger, and the second, as if reflecting on the futility of human deeds, rested her head on her arm bent at the elbow in thought. Justice Latin saying is confirmed by the image of the skull - a symbol of death, suppressing both good and evil human deeds, and soap bubble expressing the tragic fate of natural matter, doomed to disappear in the whirlpool of being.
Jacob de Gijn the Younger lived in Leiden, the city in which the first Dutch university was opened and which was the center of printing. It was Leiden that became the center of the "scientist" still life.
A great influence on the development of the still life type "vanity of vanities" was exerted by the activity of the Leiden painter David Bailey and the masters grouped around him.
Jan Davids de Heem (1606-1684) was the pioneer of a new kind of still life genre. He tried himself in various genres: flower, scientist, kitchen still lifes. In 1636 the artist moved to Antwerp and fell under the influence Flemish painting. He began to create luxurious still lifes, overloaded with bright and colorful fruits, lobsters, parrots ... Floral still lifes also had a clear Flemish trace, distinguished by a baroque symphony of colors.
Jan Davidsz de Heem had a workshop with a large number of students and assistants. In addition to the master's son, Cornelis de Heem, his direct students were Peter de Ring, Nicholas van Gelder, Johannes Bormann, Martinus Nellius, Matthijs Naive, Jan Mortel, Simon Luttihuis, Cornelis Kick. In turn, Kik brought up gifted students - Elias van den Broek and Jacob van Valskapelle.
The techniques of Jan Davids de Heem were well mastered by his son Cornelis de Heem (1631-1695). At the same time, there is more air in his paintings.
The most gifted student of Jan Davidsz de Heem was Pieter de Ring (1615-1660). A distinctive feature of his still lifes was the indispensable presence of a ring with a signet, hinting at the name of the artist (ring in Dutch - ring).
one more outstanding student Jan Davidsz de Heem was Nicholas van Gelder (1623/1636 - circa 1676), who created his still lifes under the influence of Willem Kalf.
More simple and intimate are the still lifes of the followers of Jan Davidsz de Heem - Johannes Bormann and Martinus Nellius (? - after 1706).
Luxurious still lifes were also created by Simon Luttihuis (1610 -?), adding to them the motifs of "vanity of vanities".
Another student of Jan Davidsz de Heem, Cornelis Kick (1631/1632 - 1681), used sketches on outdoors. He passed on his plein air techniques to his students Elias van den Broek (1650-1708) and Jacob van Walskapelle (1644-1727), whose still lifes are characterized by a subtle transmission of the light-air medium.
From the workshop of Jan Davidsz de Heem also came the master of still lifes "vanity of vanities" Maria van Oosterwijk, and two masters of the late flower still life, Jacob Rotius (1644 - 1681/1682) and Abraham Mignon.
During the first "luxurious" still lifes of Jan Davidsz de Hem, a few works on this subject by Francois Reykhals were also written.
The desire for brilliance is characteristic of the luxurious still lifes of Abraham van Beieren. An indispensable attribute of these paintings were pocket watches.
One of the few followers of Beyeren, Abraham Susenir, liked to depict silver utensils.
The “luxurious” still lifes of Willem Kalf (1619-1693) had a great influence on the artists. In them, Kalf often used vessels made of gold, silver, and Chinese porcelain. At the same time, the paintings were supplied with symbols of "vanity of vanities": a candlestick and a pocket watch. Kalf often chose a vertical format. His work is divided into periods of stay in France and return to Amsterdam. For late period characterized by a decrease in the number of objects depicted in the picture and a gloomy background.
Kalf's followers were Jurian van Streck, his son Hendrik van Streck (1659 - ?), Christian Jans Streep (1634-1673) and Barent van der Meer (1659 - until 1702).
Another follower of Kalf, Peter Gerrits Rustraten (1627-1698), went the way of approaching "luxurious" still lifes to "fraudulent" ones.
Along with Aalst, Matthäus Bloom is one of the pioneers of still life with hunting trophies.
A number of paintings on this topic performed by Nicholas van Gelder (1623/1636 - circa 1676).
Hunting trophies were also portrayed by Melchior de Hondekuter.
The topic of hunting still life was touched upon by the famous master of landscape Jan Baptist Venix (1621-1660), who depicted dead roe deer and swans. His son Jan Veniks created at least a hundred paintings depicting beaten hares against a stone niche or a park landscape.
Another student of Jan Baptist Weenix was Willem Frederik van Rooyen (1645/1654 - 1742), who also incorporated animal images into the landscape.
An adherent of the ceremonial hunting still life, like Aalst and Royen, was Dirk de Bry. He represented the trophies of falconry, entertainment of aristocrats and wealthy burghers.
Along with the decorative canvases of "hunting trophies", the "chamber" hunting still life became widespread. Jan Vonk (circa 1630 - 1660?), Cornelis Lelienberg (1626 - after 1676), Aalst's student Willem Gau Ferguson (circa 1633 - after 1695), Hendrik de Fromenthue (1633/1634 - after 1694) and Pieter Harmens Verelst (1618-1678), as well as his son Simon Peters Verelst (1644-1721).
"Chamber" hunting still lifes were created by painters who worked in other genres of still life: Abraham Mignon, Abraham van Beyeren, Jacob Biltius. The famous landscape painter Salomon van Ruisdael (1600/1603 - 1670), who painted "Still Life with Batten Game" (1661) and "Hunting Trophies" (1662) and genre painter, student of Adrian van Ostade, Cornelis Dusart (1660-1704) paid tribute to the hunting still life .
Still life with animals
The founders of the genre were Otto Marseus van Skrik (1619/1620 - 1678) and Matthias Vythos (1627-1703).
Skrik started a terrarium on his estate with insects, spiders, snakes and other animals, which he depicted in his paintings. He loved to create complex compositions with exotic plants and animals, introducing philosophical overtones into them. For example, in the Dresden painting “The Snake at bird's nest» butterflies collect nectar from flowers, a thrush catches butterflies and feeds them to its chick, another chick is swallowed by a snake hunted by an ermine.
Withhos preferred to depict thistles and other plants in the foreground of the paintings, among which snakes, lizards, spiders and insects crawl. As a background, he depicted italian landscape, memory of a trip to Italy.
Christian Jans Streep painted thistles and moles in the manner of Scream.
Abraham de Hoes very carefully and close to nature depicted various types of moles, lizards, snakes and butterflies.
Several canvases dedicated to the depiction of animals are owned by Willem van Aelst. His student Rachel Reusch began her creative career by imitating Skrik, but then developed own style, which is characterized by the image of small living creatures against the background of a golden landscape.
Natalia MARKOVA,
head of the graphics department of the Pushkin Museum im. A, S, Pushkin
Still life in 17th century Holland
We can say that time acted like a camera lens: with a change in focal length, the image scale changed until only objects remained in the frame, and the interior and figures were pushed out of the picture. "Frames" with a still life can be found in many paintings by Dutch artists of the 16th century. It is easy to imagine in the form of an independent picture a laid table from " family portrait» Martin van Hemskerk (c. 1530. State museums, Kassel) or a vase of flowers from a composition by Jan Brueghel the Elder. Jan Brueghel himself did something like this, writing at the very beginning of the 17th century. the first independent flower still lifes. They appeared around 1600 - this time is considered to be the date of birth of the genre.
Martin van Hemskerk. Family portrait. Fragment. OK. 1530. State Museums, Kassel.
At that moment the O va to define it did not yet exist. The term "still life" originated in France in the 18th century. and literally translated means "dead nature", "dead nature" (nature morte). In Holland, paintings depicting objects were called “stillleven”, which can be translated both as “still nature, model”, and as “quiet life”, which much more accurately conveys the specifics of the Dutch still life. But this general concept came into use only from 1650, and until that time the paintings were called according to the plot of the image: b lumentopf - a vase of flowers, banketje - a set table, fruytage - fruits, toebackje - still lifes with smoking accessories, doodshoofd - paintings depicting a skull. Already from this enumeration it is clear how great was the variety of depicted objects. Indeed, the whole objective world surrounding them seemed to spill out onto the paintings of Dutch artists.
Abraham van Beuren. Still life with lobsters. XVII century.Kunsthaus, Zurich
In art, this meant a revolution no less than the one that the Dutch made in the economic and social sphere, having won independence from the power of Catholic Spain and creating the first democratic state. While their contemporaries in Italy, France, Spain were focused on creating huge religious compositions for church altars, paintings and frescoes on the subjects of ancient mythology for palace halls, the Dutch wrote small paintings with views of the corners of the native landscape, dancing at a village festival or home concert in a burgher's house, scenes in a rural tavern, on the street or in a rendezvous house, laid tables with breakfast or dessert, that is, a “low”, unpretentious nature, not overshadowed by the ancient or Renaissance poetic tradition, except perhaps for contemporary Dutch poetry. The contrast with the rest of Europe was striking.
Paintings were rarely created to order, but mostly freely sold in the markets for everyone and were intended to decorate rooms in the homes of townspeople, and even rural residents - of those that are richer. Later, in the XVIII and XIX centuries, when life in Holland became more difficult and scarce, these domestic painting collections were widely sold at auctions and willingly acquired in royal and aristocratic collections throughout Europe, from where they eventually migrated to major museums peace. When in mid-nineteenth V. artists everywhere turned to depicting the reality around them, paintings by Dutch masters of the 17th century. served as a model for them in all genres.
Jan Venix. Still life with white peacock. 1692. State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg
A feature of Dutch painting was the specialization of artists by genre. Within the still life genre, there was even a division into separate topics, and different cities had their favorite types of still life, and if the painter happened to move to another city, he often changed his art dramatically and began to paint those varieties of the genre that were popular in this place.
Haarlem became the birthplace of the characteristic appearance Dutch still life - "breakfast". The paintings of Pieter Claesz depict a laid table with dishes and dishes. A pewter plate, a herring or ham, a bun, a glass of wine, a crumpled napkin, a lemon or a branch of grapes, cutlery - a sparing and precise selection of items creates the impression of a table set for one person. The presence of a person is indicated by the "picturesque" disorder introduced into the arrangement of things, and the atmosphere of a cozy residential interior, achieved by the transmission of the light-air environment. The dominant gray-brownish tone combines objects into a single picture, while the still life itself becomes a reflection of the individual tastes of a person, his lifestyle.
In the same vein as Klas, another Harleman, Willem Heda, worked. The color of his paintings is even more subordinated to tone unity, it is dominated by a gray-silver tone, set by the image of silver or pewter utensils. For this colorful restraint, the paintings began to be called “monochrome breakfasts”.
Abraham van Beuren. Breakfast. XVII century. Pushkin Museum im. Pushkin, Moscow
In Utrecht, a lush and elegant flower still life developed. Its main representatives are Jan Davids de Heem, Justus van Huysum and his son Jan van Huysum, who is especially famous for his meticulous writing and light coloring.
In The Hague, the center of maritime industry, Pieter de Putter and his student Abraham van Beijeren perfected the image of fish and other inhabitants of the sea, the color of their paintings casts a sheen of scales, in which spots of pink, red, blue colors flash. University Leiden created and improved the type of philosophical still life "vanitas" (vanity of vanities). In the paintings of Harmen van Steenwijk and Jan Davidsz de Heem, with objects embodying earthly glory and wealth (armor, books, art attributes, precious utensils) or sensual pleasures (flowers, fruits), the skull or hourglass as a reminder of the transience of life. A more democratic "kitchen" still life originated in Rotterdam in the work of Floris van Schoten and Francois Reykhals, and his best achievements are associated with the names of the brothers Cornelis and Herman Saftleven.
In the middle of the century, the theme of modest "breakfasts" is transformed in the works of Willem van Aelst, Urian van Streck and, in particular, Willem Kalf and Abraham van Beyeren, into luxurious "banquets" and "desserts". Gilded goblets, Chinese porcelain and Delft faience, carpet tablecloths, southern fruits emphasize the taste for elegance and wealth that was established in Dutch society in the middle of the century. Accordingly, “monochrome” breakfasts are being replaced by juicy, colorfully saturated, golden-warm colors. The influence of Rembrandt's chiaroscuro makes the colors in Kalf's paintings glow from within, poetizing the objective world.
Willem Kalf. Still life with a goblet - nautilus and a bowl of Chinese porcelain. Thyssen Museum - Bornemisza, Madrid
Masters of the image of "hunting trophies" and "bird yards" were Jan-Baptiste Veniks, his son Jan Veniks and Melchior de Hondekuter. This type of still life became especially widespread in the second half - the end of the century in connection with the aristocratization of the burghers: the arrangement of estates and entertainment by hunting. painting two latest artists shows an increase in decorativeness, color, a desire for external effects.
The amazing ability of Dutch painters to convey material world in all its richness and diversity, it was appreciated not only by contemporaries, but also by Europeans in the 18th and 19th centuries, they saw in still lifes, first of all, and only this brilliant mastery of conveying reality. However, for the Dutch of the 17th century, these paintings were full of meaning, they offered food not only for the eyes, but also for the mind. The paintings entered into a dialogue with the audience, telling them important moral truths, reminding them of the deceitfulness of earthly joys, the futility of human aspirations, directing their thoughts to philosophical reflections about the meaning of human life.
