Culture of the second half of the 20th century. Answer:
general characteristics cultures of the 20th century:
the triumph of science, human intellect, the era of social storms, upheavals, paradoxes. Modern society, forming high ideals of love for a person, equality, freedom, democracy, at the same time gave rise to a simplified understanding of these values, so the processes taking place in contemporary culture, so versatile.
Because the 20th century - an age of rapidly changing social systems, dynamic cultural processes, it is very risky to give unambiguous assessments of the development of the culture of this period, and only some characteristic features can be distinguished.
In the history of culture of the XX century. three periods can be distinguished:
1) the beginning of the 20th century - 1917 (acute dynamics of socio-political processes, diversity art forms, styles, philosophical concepts);
2) 20-30 years. (radical restructuring, some stabilization cultural dynamics, education new form culture - socialist),
3) post-war 40s. throughout the second half of the 20th century. (the time of the formation of regional cultures, the rise of national consciousness, the emergence of international movements, the rapid development of technology, the emergence of new advanced technologies, the active development of territories, the merging of science with production, the change of scientific paradigms, the formation of a new worldview). Culture is a system, everything in it is interconnected and mutually determined.
spiritual and material culture 20th century - this is a continuation of the socio-cultural processes of the 19th century, which did not justify the hopes of mankind and gave rise to new crisis and upheavals: the contradictions that had accumulated within society could not be resolved by the course of natural historical changes. At the end of the XIX century. irreversible changes took place concerning a new understanding of man, his attitude to the world, a new language of art. An example of such a new relationship is given by french painting, which has become not only actively temperamental, but colored by the subjective experiences of a person: impressionism appears, the main goal of which is to capture a moment of life.
A breakthrough beyond the boundaries of the usual art that took shape in the 19th century also occurs at the beginning of the 20th century. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Fundamental changes are taking place: culture is becoming international, integrating the spiritual values of almost all ethnic regional types and, as a result, becoming even more diverse. This diversity could not but affect art, literature, philosophy, i.e., culture as a whole, reflecting both the cultural decline and the degradation of technogenic civilization at the turn of the last two centuries of the 2nd millennium, and the metaphysical approach to solving global problems, an attempt at awareness new role person in the world. In cultural studies, art history and science, this cultural process turn of XIX- XX centuries. was called "decadence", and art and literature - decadent. The main property and feature of decadence is confusion in the face of a rapidly changing world: society turned out to be unable to rationally, scientifically explain the changes that were taking place in politics and economics, new social relations, a new picture of the world. There was a contradictory consciousness that affected the most important element of the worldview - the question of patterns in natural and social reality. Therefore, there is a surge of irrationalism, mysticism, new religious movements arise. At the beginning of the XX century. Philosophical, artistic and literary thought were closely connected (especially in Russia). This is explained by the fact that at the heart of the development of both philosophy and artistic culture was a crisis of public consciousness. Decadence was formed on this theoretical basis.
Question 22.
"Mass" and "Elite" culture. Conflict and interaction. Answer:
Elite culture is a creative avant-garde, an art laboratory where new types and forms of art are constantly being created. She is also called high culture, because it is created by the elite of society, or by its order by professional creators. It includes fine arts, classical music and literature. As a rule, elite culture is ahead of the level of its perception by an average-educated person, by the broad masses. The creators of an elite culture, as a rule, do not count on a wide audience. To understand these works, one must master the special language of art. Thus, the works of abstractionists in the form of color compositions are difficult to perceive by a person who is not familiar with the laws of painting, symbolic color images. The motto of the elite culture is “Art for the sake of art”. In modern culture, films by Fellini, Tarkovsky, books by Kafka, Belle, Picasso's paintings, music by Duval, Schnittke are classified as elite. However, sometimes elite works become popular (for example, the films of Coppolo and Bertolucci, the works of Salvador Dali and Shemyakin).
Mass culture - this is a public culture that does not express the refined tastes of aristocrats or the spiritual searches of the people. Its greatest scope begins from the middle of the 20th century, when the funds mass media penetrated into most countries. This art is for everyone and it must take into account the tastes and needs of consumers who pay with their money for its commercial benefits. As a rule, mass culture has less artistic value than elite and folk culture. She is changing fast. subject to fashion and reacts to any new event. It has a lot of imitative, standardized, it draws its plots from the elite and folk culture but based on stereotypes. If for representatives of an elite culture the main aspiration is complete self-expression and artistic expression their ideas, then for the creators of mass culture, the commercial benefit, the profitability of a work is important.
Question 23.
Features of Russian culture. East or West? Answer:
We must agree that Russia is irreducible to pure form neither to the East nor to the West, it is necessary to really take into account the influence of the eastern (Turanian) factor on its development. But this, perhaps, is all that can be accepted from the Eurasians. It is impossible to base the concept of Russian history on the ideas of Eurasianism. A single Eurasian nation is a myth. Nor does the thesis about Russia's self-sufficiency sound convincing. Why, since the time of Peter I, has the country been so resolutely and stubbornly striving to unite with Europe, to enter the community of European powers? Europeanization was not only a wish, but also a reality, especially felt at the beginning of the 20th century. In modern conditions, the anti-Western nature of the Eurasian and other similar concepts is used in the struggle against the transition to a market and democracy.
An analysis of history from the positions of Russian nationalism means new violence against it. The desire to reduce everything to Russian and Russian is not justified. For any impartial person, it is obvious that this does not correspond to historical realities. Yes, the Russian people have created a rich culture. Yes, Russian state created as Russian. But that doesn't exhaust everything. Russian world. Is it possible to cross out the fate and culture of peoples who profess Muslim values, Catholic, Buddhist, etc.?
Thus, the disputes that have taken place in Russia throughout almost the entire length of its history and are still ongoing regarding the place and role of Russia in the world civilizational process have given rise to different answers. After all that has been said, the following initial principles should be taken as the basis for the analysis of the history and culture of Russia:
1. Russia is not an independent civilization and does not belong to any of the types of civilizations in its purest form. Russian culture is a historical and multifaceted concept. It includes facts, processes, trends that testify to a long and complex development both in geographical space and in historical time.
2. Russia is a civilizationally heterogeneous society. This is a special, historically formed conglomerate of peoples belonging to different types of development, united by powerful, centralized state with a Great Russian core.
3. Russia is geopolitically located between two powerful centers of civilizational influence - the East and the West, and includes peoples developing both in the Western and Eastern versions. Inevitably in Russian society both western and eastern influences. Most of the territory of Russia was settled later than those regions of the world in which the main centers of culture developed. In this sense, domestic culture is a relatively young phenomenon. Due to its historical youth, it faced the need for intensive historical development. Developing under the influence of various cultures of the countries of the West and East, historically ahead of Russia, perceiving and assimilating cultural heritage other peoples, Russian culture solved its own problems, formed and developed its own traditions, never limited to copying other people's samples.
4. When sharp turns historical whirlwinds "shifted" the country either closer to the West or closer to the East. Russia is like a "drifting society" at the crossroads of civilizational magnetic fields. In this regard, for our country, like no other, throughout history, the problem of choosing alternatives has been extremely acute.
5. A long period of development of Russian culture was determined by the Christian Orthodox religion, which, with its spiritual activity, made a significant contribution to the world artistic treasury of Russia. At the same time, the influence of Christianity on Russian culture is a far from unambiguous process. According to the fair remark of the prominent Slavophil A.S. Khomyakov, Rus' took only the external form, the rite, and not the spirit and essence Christian religion. Russian culture is out of control religious dogmas and outgrew the boundaries of Orthodoxy.
6. Specific Features Russian culture is determined to a large extent by what researchers have called "the character of the Russian people." main feature this character was called faith. Russian culture testifies: with all the inconsistencies in the Russian soul and Russian character, it is difficult to disagree with the famous lines of F. Tyutchev: "You cannot understand Russia with the mind, you cannot measure it with a common yardstick: it has become special - you can only believe in Russia."
In order for an answer in the test to be counted as satisfying the requirements, it must disclose the following provisions and answer the following questions:
1. The subject and tasks of cultural studies as a science.
What is the "subject" of science? What is the "subject" of cultural studies as a science? How does the culturological interpretation of the concept of culture differ from its interpretation by other sciences?
What are the main tasks of cultural studies as a science? What is practical use the results she gets?
2. Formation of cultural studies as an independent branch of knowledge. The place of cultural studies in the system of the humanities.
(Continue)
When does interest in culture as a phenomenon arise in European science? What sciences study culture?
3. The concept of culture. (Definitions)
The ambiguity of the concept of "Culture". Why is it not possible to give one precise definition this concept? List the main groups of definitions of culture. Give examples.
4. The meaning of culture. Functions of culture.
What is the meaning of culture as a phenomenon in the human community? What are its main functions? Define the term "function". List the main functions of culture. Give specific examples.
5. The role of etiquette. History and modernity.
Define the concept of "etiquette". Where (in which country), when (in what century) and why (for what) does etiquette arise? Is etiquette related to folk culture or aristocratic? To the mass or to the elite? What is the meaning and what is the purpose of etiquette in Everyday life previous centuries? How widespread and how carefully are etiquette norms implemented in modern society? Why is ignorance of the basic norms of etiquette associated with a low cultural level of a person?
6. The concept of "cultural - historical archive". Its meaning and meaning.
Define the concept of "cultural-historical archive". What are the components of a cultural-historical archive, and which are not included in it? What is the significance of a cultural archive in a general cultural context? What is the meaning of this concept for cultural studies?
7. The concept of "cultural constant". Space, time, death, marriage.
Define a cultural constant. What are the main methods of culture analysis using cultural constants? Give an example of a cultural constant. What conclusions can be drawn for a particular culture based on consideration of this constant?
8. Eurocentrism and the theory of local civilizations.
What is Eurocentrism? Give a definition. Explain the origin of this worldview and its modern features. How are Eurocentric theories of culture different? Give an example of a Eurocentric theory of culture. What is the difference between the theories of local civilizations? Give examples of concepts related to theories of local civilizations.
9. Formative conception of culture by K. Marx.
What is the significance of Marx's historical and economic theory for Russian and world culture? What is the relationship between economics and culture according to Marx? What is a socio-economic formation, and what are they? What is a pre-class, class and post-class society? What are their characteristic features? How is the transition from one socio-economic formation to another? What is the mode of production and production relations? How do different socio-economic formations coexist? What are the objective laws of historical development, and what is its expected result?
10. The theory of cultural and historical types of O. Spengler.
Spengler's work "The Decline of Europe": to reveal the concepts of "soul", "great-symbols" of culture, "landscape".
What are the possibilities of interactions between cultures? What is the cycle of development of the life of culture? What is the relationship between the concepts of "culture" and "civilization"?
11. A. Toynbee's concept of cultural development: "Challenge" and "Response".
What is the connection between cultural studies and history? What is the main content of A. Toynbee's work "Comprehension of History". What is the meaning of the concept of "Challenges" and "Answers". Define and reveal the meaning of the concept of "Elite". How do cultural elites arise and how do they disappear? What is the purpose of the cultural elite according to A. Toynbee? List, describe and give examples of the main types of incentives (impact, pressure, social infringement). What are the possible responses to incentives (archaism, futurism, asceticism, spiritual transformation) and what are the features of the only one that brings results ?.
12. The emergence of culture. Features of primitive culture. Origin problem primitive culture: what are the features of dating and material evidence. What are the features of primitive thinking and worldview? Define the terms syncretism, fetishism, animism and totemism. Give examples.
13. Features of ancient culture. Egypt.
What are the features mythology of Egypt, and what is its impact on culture? Define and give examples of zoomorphism in Egyptian culture. What are the reasons for the conservatism of Egyptian art? What is the connection of this conservatism with the cult of the dead and a special attitude towards corporality (the resurrecting body)?
14. Ancient culture. General characteristics. (Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome of your choice)
Ancient Greece. What is the anthropocentrism of Greek mythology and culture? How does the body as a microcosm, living according to certain laws, correlate with the laws of life of the macrocosm? What is the principle of kalokagatiya striving for the harmonious development of the personality?
Ancient Rome. What are the features of the civil culture of Ancient Rome? How do you see the influence of Roman legislation on European civilization? The body as property: what is the influence on further development European culture in general?
15. European medieval culture. General characteristics. What does the term "Middle Ages" mean? Explain what the hierarchy of the medieval picture of the world means and how it manifests itself. Define and explain the main features of medieval culture (geocentrism, traditionalism, symbolism, didacticism and psychological introspection, historicism) What is the impact of perceiving the body as “sinful and mortifying flesh” on medicine and everyday life? Explain what the division of medieval culture into elite (aristocratic) and folk culture means.
16. The place and significance of Christianity in the picture of the world of man in the Middle Ages.
Define and explain the concept of theocentrism. Explain how the theocentric picture of the world affects a person's perception of his place in it? What will be the implications of this perception for everyday life? Explain what the meaning of life and the essence of death were seen by people in medieval Europe.
17. Italian Renaissance. Changing the cultural paradigm.
Give definitions and explain the main features of the Renaissance: anthropocentrism, humanism, modification of medieval tradition, special treatment to antiquity and philology. Explain what is meant by the terms traditional culture” and “innovative culture”. How is the transition of European culture from traditional to innovative?
18. Transalpine Renaissance. Meaning of the Reformation.
What are the historical reasons for the emergence of Protestantism? Describe the distinguishing features of Anglicanism, Calvinism and Lutheranism. Explain the influence of Protestant ethics on the development of mass culture.
19. Culture of the New Time. Main features and stages. (17th -19th centuries.)
Define and formulate the features of the innovative type of culture. Briefly describe how the European innovation culture developed from the 17th century to the end of the 19th century. What examples of historical events and scientific discoveries can you lead to each of the listed centuries? Explain the scientific significance of Darwin's concept. Give definitions and explain the concepts of rationalism and scientism. Explain what were the scientific and technological revolutions ..
20. European culture the first half of the 20th century. Main features and features.
Formulate the main trends in the development of European culture in the first half of the XX century. What is industrial culture, what are its main features and characteristics. What scientific discoveries and new technical possibilities are being created in the cultural space? Define mass culture and give examples of related phenomena. Explain the causes and consequences of the spread of the European type of culture.
21. European culture of the second half of the 20th century. Main features and characteristics.
Define post-industrial culture. Explain how the transition from industrial to post-industrial culture was carried out. Explain the essence of the concepts of technogenic civilization and information society. Explain both the positive and negative meaning and role of the media in the modern world.
22. "Mass" and "elite" culture. Conflict and interaction.
Give definitions and give examples of phenomena related to mass and elite cultures. Explain why mass culture tends to lower the standards of elite culture. Explain the connection between mass culture and production, and elite culture with the cultural and historical archive. What is the essence of the conflict and unity of values transmitted by these cultures?
23. Features of Russian culture. East or West?
What are the features of the location and cultural influences that historically have had on Russian culture? With which historical events connected crisis of the traditional national culture? What are the features of the culture of modern Russia as a multinational state? Give definitions and give examples of the concepts of ethnic and national culture. State what it was cultural aspect causes of interethnic conflicts in recent decades.
Similar information.
The most difficult period in Russian history is the 20th century. Wars, revolutions, reform attempts, the creation and collapse of the USSR, collectivization and industrialization, scientific and technological progress. These and other events, of course, left their mark on art, so the culture of Russia in the 20th century is of great interest.
Silver Age.
The beginning of the 20th century (until 1922) was called the "Silver Age".
At this time, philosophy develops. Its distinctive features were decadentism (from the French "decadent"), God-seeking. In 1909, the collection "Milestones" was published, full of reflections on the Russian intelligentsia.
A separate place in the culture of the "Silver Age" belongs to literature. Poets at that time tried to find themselves in symbolism (V. Bryusov, Z. Gippius, K. Balmont, and others) and acmeism (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, and others). Among the writers of this period, M. Gorky, I. Bunin and A. Kuprin should also be noted.
In architecture, Art Nouveau begins its journey. A vivid example of it is the mansion of S. P. Ryabushinsky by F. Shekhtel.
Back in 1898, the association of artists "World of Art" was created, defending the freedom of creativity. These included A. Benois, L. Bakst, M. Vrubel, V. Serov, I. Levitan, N. Roerich, K. Petrov-Vodkin and others. Most of the artists worked in the Art Nouveau style. Futurism, cubism and avant-gardism developed later (K. Malevich and V. Kandinsky).
20-40s.
In the 1920s and 1940s, many different associations were formed. Then unions are created in the USSR for all types of art. So the authorities had the opportunity to control creativity. Sometimes this led to the persecution of really talented cultural figures (M. Bulgakov, E. Zamyatin, V. Meyerhold, and others).
The achievements of this era include the almost complete elimination of illiteracy. In addition to school education, much attention was paid to out-of-school education. Thus, pioneer and Komsomol organizations are being created.
The largest artists
The nicknames of this period were K. Petrov-Vodkin, K. Yuon, M. Grekov. Poster graphics are being developed. There is such a direction as socialist realism. The creativity of M. Bulgakov, M. Sholokhov, M. Tsvetaeva, M. Zoshchenko flourishes. V. Meyerhold and E. Vakhtangov made a major contribution to the theater. Cinema is becoming one of the priority areas. S. Eisenstein, M. Romm, G. Alexandrov and others create here. One of the main architectural achievements was the Mausoleum of V. Lenin (architect A. Shchusev), and the monument “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” (V. Mukhina) was a sculptural achievement.
Science was extremely important for the authorities, therefore, large funds were invested in its development for almost the entire century. Attention was paid mainly natural sciences, humanitarian for a long time served only for ideological purposes.
The Great Patriotic War and the post-war period.
The work of this period was devoted to the themes of war and patriotism. A. Deineka, K. Simonov, I. Toidze, A. Tvardovsky and many others were remembered for their inspiring works.
The task of architects after the war was the restoration of destroyed cities. The prevailing style remains "Stalin's Empire". In addition, new facilities are being built, including the Moscow State University building.
"Thaw".
During the reign of N. S. Khrushchev, there comes a certain weakening of the control of power over creativity, I. Ehrenburg called it a “thaw”. However, there was still no complete freedom ( a prime example- “the Pasternak case”), therefore, samizdat and tamizdat are being developed.
Films about youth problems and romantic films appear in the cinema. In music becomes popular genre bard song. famous sculptor was E. Unknown.
Science reaches cosmic heights, both literally and in figuratively. The successes of this time: the first satellite, the flight of Yu. A. Gagarin into space, the first nuclear power plant in Obninsk. There are also many Nobel laureates among scientists.
60-80s
Literature is busy at this time. The number of works about the war ("lieutenant prose") is increasing, and "village prose" is developing. Some writers of the USSR are marked Nobel Prizes.
The stagnation touched painting. Socialist realism influenced the tastes of the Soviet audience not in better side. In addition, the authorities hindered the development of new forms of fine art. So, in 1974, an exhibition of artists who wrote in the avant-garde style (“bulldozer exhibition”) was crushed.
Cinema of the 60-80s is the pride of the country. Take at least "Irony of Fate". Music also gave a lot of talents (Alla Pugacheva and others).
"Publicity".
M. Gorbachev's time is a free discussion of various topics, the weakening of censorship, the publication of previously banned books. This policy was called "glasnost". The circulation of newspapers and magazines has increased dramatically.
In the context of the crisis and the approaching collapse of the country, films appear that are in tune with the era.
Thus, despite all the upheavals and pressure from the authorities, writers, sculptors, architects, artists, etc. were able to preserve the culture of Russia in the 20th century and increase its heritage.
The first half of the 20th century in the history of Western Europe is extremely important. During this period, the formation industrial civilization and the transition to the post-industrial begins. Capitalism at this time is transformed from monopoly to state-monopoly. Deep changes are taking place in him, many of which can be called life-changing, since they affected his very existence. This was confirmed by the crisis of 1929-1933, unprecedented in its depth and scale, which shook Western society to its very foundations. Capitalism most likely would not have survived the second such crisis. In order to avoid its repetition, capitalism was subjected to serious reform. It has been very successful in the USA.
The reforms carried out did not rid capitalism of contradictions and crises, but they significantly softened them, did not allow contradictions to reach extreme antagonism, and ensured the necessary minimum of social balance. Thanks to the reforms, prerequisites for the emergence of a consumer society that could have taken shape already in the 40s, but due to World War II, it took shape in the United States by the end of the 50s, and in other European countries - in the 60s. In general, state-monopoly capitalism managed to find a kind of "modus vivendi" in which both the wolves would be fed and the sheep would be safe.
To the number major events The first half of the 20th century includes two world wars, which brought tens of millions of dead, innumerable disasters, destruction and losses. These wars caused a deep crisis of humanism and other educational ideals and values that formed the foundation Western civilization and culture. After World War II, the world split into two opposite systems - capitalism and socialism - the opposition of which complicated the existence of world culture as a whole.
These and other factors determined the conditions in which Western culture developed in the first half of the 20th century. Science has been the most successful in doing this. During the period under review, the second scientific revolution that began at the end of the 19th century. Revolutionary shifts have taken place in all areas of knowledge. In physics, the divisibility of the atom was discovered, quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity were created. In chemistry, the laws of many chemical processes were discovered, quantum chemistry. In biology, the formation of genetics begins. In cosmology, the concept of a non-stationary - contracting or receding - Universe has been developed. Science owes its outstanding achievements to many scientists, including A. Einstein, M. Planck, A. Poincaré, N. Bohr, M. Born, the spouses Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie.
In the sphere of cognition, with its differentiation into separate sciences, the same processes take place within each of the sciences, which, in turn, are divided into many disciplines and schools. All this reinforces the trend towards pluralism. It is not uncommon for a situation where, within a given science, representatives of different schools hold different views on the same phenomenon.
As for religion, its position continued to deteriorate. We can say that the first half of the 20th century turned out to be the most non-religious of the West.
Unlike religion, philosophy was in a better position. The main philosophical directions are neopositivism and existentialism. The first speaks on behalf of science. He made a significant contribution to the development of problems of formal logic, language and theory of knowledge. Its representatives B. Russell, R. Carnap, L. Wittgenstein. Existentialism opposed itself to science and positivist philosophy. He focused his attention on the problems of man, and, above all, on the problems of freedom. Its most famous representatives are J.-P. Sartre and M. Heidegger.
During the period under review, quite successfully developed art culture. This period was the last when France occupied a leading position in world culture, and Paris was considered the recognized cultural capital of the world. The main trend in the art of France is realism. In literature, he is represented, first of all, by three great names: A. France, R. Rolland, R. Martin du Gard. The first created a number of historical and philosophical novels, one of which is The Gods Thirst. The second world fame was brought by the epic novel "Jean-Christophe", which tells about the relationship between the genius musician and society. The third is the author of the multi-volume novel The Thibaut Family, which gives a broad panorama of France.
A significant phenomenon in the spiritual life was the work of existentialist writers - J.-P. Sartre and A. Camus. The main themes of their works are freedom and responsibility, the absurdity of being, loneliness. Sartre's plays "The Flies" and "The Devil" and "The Lord God" gained great fame, while Camus's novels "Alien", "Plague", "The Myth of Sisyphus".
Along with literature, French sculpture is successfully developing. In this period, it is represented by sculptors E. Bourdelle and A. Maillol. The works of the first - "Hercules", "Penelope", "Sappho" - were created according to antique subjects in the classical spirit. The female statues of the second - "Night", "Pomona", "Mediterranean" - are marked by amazing harmony and balance, filled with captivating femininity.
German literature has made significant progress. She owes this, first of all, to the work of T. Mann, L. Feuchtwanger, E. M. Remarque. main figure German literature is T. Mann, who created the fundamental philosophical novels"Magic Mountain", and "Doctor Faustus", as well as a tetralogy on the biblical story "Joseph and his brothers". Feuchtwanger is best known for his historical novels"Goya", "The Wisdom of an Eccentric", etc. In the novels "On Western front no change”, “Three comrades”, etc. Remarque expressed the attitude “ lost generation". The work of B. Brecht, who created the intellectual epic theater. world fame they brought him the plays “Mother Courage”, “ a kind person from Sezuan" and others.
English literature is experiencing a real upsurge. Of the many great names, first of all, J. Galsworthy, S. Maugham, B. Shaw should be mentioned. First world fame brought the Forsyte Saga trilogy. The second is known as the author of the novel The Burden of Human Passions. B. Shaw is a recognized classic English Literature. He successfully proved himself in all genres - drama, novel, short story.
On high level remains American literature. She owes this primarily to such writers as W. Faulkner, J. Steinbeck, E. Hemingway. In his novels The Sound and the Fury, The Light in August, and others, Faulkner combines a realistic style of narration with a search for new forms and techniques. Steinbeck is best known for his novel The Grapes of Wrath, which has become a real epic of the life of the American people. Hemingway's work is broad and multifaceted. In For Whom the Bell Tolls, he reflects on war and violence as the tragic curse of humanity. In the story-parable "The Old Man and the Sea", the life and fate of a person are considered in the light of tragic stoicism.
Although traditional realistic art occupied a significant place in the spiritual life of Western society, it was not at the center of public attention. In this regard, it was inferior to modernism and the emerging avant-garde, which increasingly came to the fore, enjoying growing media attention. At the same time, modernism is increasingly being transformed into the avant-garde.
The avant-garde was a direct continuation of modernism, with which it has much in common, which is why they often do not differ. However, despite the similarities, there are significant differences between them. There is a lot of duality, inconsistency and inconsistency in modernism. He does not completely break with the past, he is at odds with the present, he does not believe much in the future. Hence his asociality, sometimes turning into antisociality. In relations with science, he oscillates between close cooperation with it and complete rejection of it.
Modernism is full of melancholy, marked by decadence. All this weakened him. creative potential. Therefore, many aspects of modernism found their further development in the avant-garde, which turned out to be more consistent and integral. We can say that the avant-garde is modernism, turned to society and science and looking to the future.
The Art Nouveau style (1880-1910) was a transitional trend from modernism to the avant-garde. Its main representatives were H. Van de Velde in Belgium, J. Olbrich in Austria, A. Gaudi in Spain, C. Mackintosh in Scotland, F. Shechtel in Russia. It is most widely used in architecture and arts and crafts. "Modern" in many ways continues symbolism, but there is practically no decadence in it, while the avant-garde component is noticeably enhanced. Following romanticism, he strives for synthesis.
In his manifestos, he called for a "total renewal of art." Representatives of "modern" made extensive use of modern technical and design capabilities, but at the same time showed a certain distrust and even fear of the car. They tried to combine scientific calculation with intuition and irrationalism.
Fauvism (1905-1908) became the first current of the avant-garde itself. He continued the line of Romanticism, Impressionism, Post-Impressionism and Art Nouveau, influenced by Oriental and African art. His supporters - A. Matisse, M. Vlaminck, A. Derain, A. Marquet - made statements about the end of realism. They set the task for art not to “copy”, but to “invent reality”, “re-create the world”, following inner desires. The main goal for them is expressiveness, the search for pure means of survival. Fauvism significantly increased the importance of the personal, subjective principle in art.
A. Matisse - the head of the movement - defined his work as "an expression of a personal spirit", he did not want "anything but color." Matisse abandoned the image in favor of the sign, believing that the first is overloaded with details and details, while the second allows you to achieve pure color and absolute simplicity. Among his works, "Joy of Life", "Dance", "Music", "Red Fishermen" stand out. Fauvism was open to society. Some of its participants intended to make a revolution not only in art, but also in life. However, in general, he was characterized by a lyrical view of the world.
Expressionism (1905-1920) arose under the influence of the previous currents of modernism and the avant-garde, as well as oriental art. The first work written in the spirit of expressionism can be considered the picture of the Norwegian artist E. Munch "Scream" (1893). As a special trend, expressionism declared itself simultaneously with the creation of the "Bridge" group (1905). It has received wide international distribution, although it is primarily a German phenomenon. Its main representatives were the artists E. Kirchner, E. Nolde, M. Pechstein, F. Mark, P. Klee.
Expressionism breaks more decisively with traditional art, more openly, directed to the future. Its very name indicates that the main thing for it is expression, expressiveness. For this, he boldly goes to the violation of proportions and deformation of the depicted object. Expressionism shows maximalism in the choice means of expression, and in the effort of the subjective principle. Expressionist artists created internal tension, explosive forms. They painted their canvases in bright, poisonous red or blue colors and with iridescent contour outlines. Expressionism relied mostly on irrationalism, the philosophy of life of W. Dilthey and F. Nietzsche, the theory of the unconscious by S. Freud, and was skeptical about science. He was characterized by a sharp social and anti-war position.
Cubism (1908-1930) - one of the main currents of avant-garde - arose under the influence of P. Cezanne's post-impressionism and Fauvism, as well as African sculpture. Its representatives P. Picasso, J. Braque, F. Léger, R. Delaunay profess a real passion for experimentation, the search for new expressive means and techniques. They seek radical renewal artistic language. Art for them acts as the creation of plastic forms endowed with independent existence and meaning.
Cubism is based on modern science- theories of A. Einstein, A. Poincaré, G. Minkowski. P. Picasso - the head of the movement - said that he paints not what he sees, but what he knows. With his work, he appealed to the human intellect, considering his paintings as "the denial of feelings." Picasso also emphasized that in painting "only finds are important." His most famous works are The Maidens of Avignon, The Three Masked Musicians, Guernica, The Dove of Peace. Signs are widely present in cubism modern civilization- factories, pipes, bottles, umbrellas, etc. He invades social issues and politics, being an example of engaged art.
Futurism (1909-1925) became one of the most radical variants of avant-garde. It received the greatest distribution in Italy, where its representatives were F. Marinetti, U. Boccioni, J. Balla, L. Russolo; and in Russia - V. Mayakovsky and V. Khlebnikov. The Futurists proclaimed a complete break not only with art, but with the entire culture of the past. They came out with the glorification of the industrial civilization and the modern big city.
Instead of the former aesthetics of the beautiful, they put forward the aesthetics of energy and speed, "the aesthetics of locomotives, monoplanes and automobiles." The car seemed to them more beautiful than Nike of Samothrace. Futurism was highly socialized and politicized. Some of his supporters (F. Marinetti) declared their adherence to the ideas of fascism. Most adhered to the left positions.
Surrealism (1924-1940) - the last significant trend of the European avant-garde - arose under the influence of symbolism, expressionism and Dadaism (M. Duchamp). It has received wide international distribution. Its main representatives are A. Breton in France, S. Dali in Spain, R. Magritte in Belgium, G. Moore in England. Surrealism is based on irrationalism and alogism, the concept of the unconscious by S. Freud.
He became the embodiment of extreme forms of subjectivism. Surrealists find inspiration in fantastic dreams and hallucinations. The main figure of surrealism is S. Dali. His most famous works are "Burning Giraffe", "Premonition of Civil War", "Autumn Cannibalism". Surrealism proclaimed as its goals the social, moral and intellectual liberation of man. He did not shy away from politics, declaring himself a supporter of the revolution. He also opposed the commercialization of art.
In general, the first half of the 20th century was marked by a further strengthening of the civilizational beginning. At the same time, the position of spiritual culture became more and more complicated.
Russian culture of the 20th century acquired trends and forms that required understanding of social and moral problems, which led to the need to search for new artistic methods and techniques. Difficult situation, which had developed by the beginning of the 20th century, determined the variety of forms used.
Russia, by the beginning of the 20th century, remained a country with an extremely low level literacy. According to the 1913 census, the number of literate people did not exceed 39%. At the same time, the degree of literacy was not the same among the inhabitants of the city and the village, as well as in different regions of the country. The Russian educational system had 3 levels. The elementary included folk and parochial schools. To the middle - real schools and gymnasiums. To the highest - institutes and universities.
The development of primary education in Russia is associated with the initiatives of an active democratically minded part of society. People's houses, educational societies, work courses were created. The country's need for qualified specialists has led to the development of technical higher education. By 1912 there were 16 of them. Much attention was paid to the education of women. For 10 years since 1908, 30 higher education institutions have opened in the country. educational institutions for women. Russia ranked first in the world in terms of the number of published literature. Great importance in cultural life The country also had periodicals. By 1913, 1263 magazines and 874 newspapers were being published. A whole network of scientific, educational and commercial libraries was created.
Actively developed traditional and new for the country scientific disciplines. Tsiolkovsky develops the theoretical foundations of aeronautics, Zhukovsky lays the foundations for aero- and hydrodynamics. This period gave Russia and the whole world outstanding scientists: Popov, Michurin, Timiryazev, Mechnikov. Huge contribution to development philosophical thought was introduced by Berdyaev, Florensky, Solovyov, Klyuchevsky.
The culture of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century is characterized by the dominance of realism in literature. Chekhov, Bunin, Gorky, Tolstoy and others worked in that era. In the history of Russian poetry, this time is known as " Silver Age". Merezhkovsky, Sologub, Bryusov, Mandelstam, Severyanin, Blok, Mayakovsky, Akhmatova reflected in their outstanding works the deepest social crisis in which Russia was.
In 1898, Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko founded Artistic theater. Their work gave the world a new stage in the development of performing arts. Russian vocal school beginning of the 20th century continued the musical traditions of the Mariinsky and Bolshoi Theater. On their stages were: Sobinov, Nezhdanova, Chaliapin. Composers Stravinsky and Rimsky-Korsakov created their masterpieces.
Russian culture of the early 20th century gave the world a lot talented artists. Famous landscape painters of that time: Vereshchagin, Polenov, Kuindzhi. The traditions of realism were developed by Surikov, Repin, Vasnetsov. It is worth noting the work of the late masters - the "wanderers" Korovin and Kasatkin.
The architecture was dominated by Art Nouveau. Particularly great importance was given to the functional purpose of buildings. It is worth noting Kazansky railway station (Schusev) and Yaroslavsky railway station (Shekhtel).
The culture reflected the life of the people of that turbulent era of change, whose witnesses they were. In some works there is a feeling of hopelessness and tragic end. The catastrophe of the First World War (from this point of view the Second World War was something expected, logical, although it brought much more disasters than the First) revealed the insufficiency of European faith in progress, the rationality of history. The war showed the fragility, instability, finiteness of man. existential philosophy became a powerful response to this catastrophe in the European mind. Existentialism is characterized as a philosophical expression of the profound upheavals that befell Western European civilization that survived the First World War, the deceptive stabilization of the 1920s and 1930s, and the advent of fascism. This philosophy aroused interest, primarily because it turned to the problem of critical and crisis situations, in which a person often finds himself during a period of severe historical trials. Existentialists believe that catastrophic events recent history discovered the instability not only of the individual, but also of any human being. An individual, in order to stand in this world, must, first of all, deal with his own inner world, evaluate his capabilities and abilities. The human problem was brought to the fore. According to the philosophy of existentialism, in order to realize oneself, a person must find himself in a "boundary situation" - for example, in the face of death. As a result, the world becomes closest to a person.
For example, the Russian philosopher Nikolai Berdyaev writes a work called "The End of Europe", and the German Oswald Spengler writes the book "The Decline of Europe" (literally - "The Decline of the Western World"). They criticize the development of history, they no longer believe in historical progress, considering progress as the path to the death of mankind.
Spengler believed that the world war is the beginning of the agony European civilization. Spengler's goal is to build a table that will show the same stages in the development of different civilizations within the framework of World History. human society. Every civilization goes through periods of childhood, youth, manhood and old age. The meaning of history is that these civilizations replace each other, grow next to each other, touch, push and suppress each other.
There are two stages in the development of civilization:
· culture (ascension)
· civilization (descent)
Each civilization has its own soul, at the first stage this soul gives rise to language, creeds, art, science and the state, at the second stage the soul suddenly freezes, which leads to the decline and death of civilization. Young civilizations bloom like flowers in a field, old civilizations resemble gigantic withered trees that bulge their rotten branches in a virgin forest. Spengler singled out eight great cultures: Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian, Chinese, Mexican, antique, Arabic, European. ninth great culture he considered the awakening Russian-Siberian civilization.
Decline of Civilization Traits:
- "Massification" and huge cities instead of villages. The modern city dweller is a new nomad and atheist, for him the main thing is money and power, and not heroic myths and patriotism.
- Wars for world domination.
- A tyrant is at the head of the state.
- Oversaturation with technology
Pragmatism- one of the influential philosophical movements of the 20th century, especially in its homeland - in the United States of America. The name comes from the Greek word meaning deed, action. Pragmatism is often called the philosophy of business, action, thereby emphasizing its practical orientation. According to pragmatism, the only criterion of truth is the success of any undertaking, deed, deed. The function of the intellect is not to copy the objects of the surrounding world, but rather to establish the way in which the most effective and profitable relations with these objects can be created in the future. The essence of pragmatism can be expressed very briefly: a person has to act in an unknowable world, attempts to achieve objective truth are meaningless, therefore, scientific theories, social ideas, moral principles, etc. should be approached “instrumentally”, i.e. from the point of view of their benefits and convenience to achieve our goals; what is useful, what brings success, is true.
Positivism ( lat. positivus - positive) as main problem considers the question of the relationship between philosophy and science. The main thesis of positivism is that true (positive) knowledge about reality can only be obtained by specific, special sciences.
The “spirit of positivism” meant, first of all, a radical change in the hierarchy of values: if in the culture of feudal society priority was given to the “heavenly” (God as the spiritual principle of the world, the soul as divine in man, etc.), and everything “earthly” was regarded as base (the body was presented as a “dungeon of the soul” and a haven of sin), now the “earthly” was put at the forefront - the bodily nature of a person, his practical (“material”) interests and production-transforming activities in the material world.
Large-scale changes that took place in the life of society in the first half of the 20th century. affected the sphere of spiritual life, the main result - emergence of mass culture.
Mass culture or pop culture, mass culture, majority culture- the culture of everyday life, entertainment and information that prevails in modern society. It includes such phenomena as mass media (including television and radio), sports, cinema, music (including pop music), popular literature, fine arts, etc. The term "mass culture" arose in the 40s. XX century. The content of mass culture is determined by daily events, aspirations and needs that make up the life of the majority of the population. Mass culture captured and absorbed people and became available to the general population. Mass culture was used to distract the population from serious social, political and moral problems, to promote the values and standards of the "mass consumer society". At this time, the most massive form of art becomes cinema. It was the time of the formation of cinema, each year brought new artistic and technical discoveries. Charlie Chaplin became one of the greatest actors and director.
The search for something new and significant achievements marked the first steps of Soviet cinema, which turned to themes of great social significance. The works of the film director S. M. Eisenstein (1898-1948) gained international fame. famous movies"Battleship Potemkin", "Alexander Nevsky"
Sound films appeared in the late 1920s. Film production in the USA has gained a special scope. The 1920s and 1930s went down in history as the "golden age" of Hollywood (this film city arose on the outskirts of Los Angeles shortly before the First World War). It has become an international cinema center with great financial and technical capabilities.
