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1. General characteristics of Russian literature in the first third of the 19th century. Historical originality of the era
Total, literary era The first third of the 19th century can be divided into three "sub-periods":
1) Literature before 1825
2) Literature 30s.
3) Literature 40 years.
This special age: a century when several literary trends dominate and exist with each other at once: classicism is still alive, sentimentalism still exists, the flowering of romanticism and realism begins to emerge.
Names of this period: Baratynsky, Pushkin, Lermontov, Lazhechnikov, Zhukovsky.
Historical identity of the era:
First of all, it should be noted that Russia has always been part of the world, so world events affected the country. In 1789-1793, the “Great French Bourgeois Revolution” took place in France, which completely changed the way of the state and raised the country to a new level - the formation changed to bourgeois, and then to capitalist.
And in Russia a series of events took place: on March 11, 1801, when Emperor Paul 1 was killed. Moreover, the murder was committed in the bedroom of the sovereign by his own relatives (aristocrats).
But new Age nevertheless showed hope for something new and good. “A great start to the days of Alexander” - this is how the author begins one of his poems.
At this time, the talented reformer Speransky was also working.
Personality of Alexander Unfortunately he didn't have all necessary qualities In order to successfully rule the country, he was not decisive in the abolition of serfdom (especially when it came to the nobles). The emperor had two assistants who played a huge role: Speransky and Arakcheev, who were also called the “Two Faces of Alexander”.
But soon "only one face" remained: 1812 - Speransky was removed from his post.
1812 - the second important event that influenced the course of history: the war.
It was at this moment that public consciousness awakened: enlightened people saw the truth, the true state of affairs of their country
But no one called for abolition serfdom: people who created secret societies, they only talked about “changes in order, reforms” - only Radishchev spoke openly about fundamental changes, about abolition - that’s why they called him a “rebel”
In Russia of that period, there were two powerful forces, the largest sections of the population: the nobility and the peasantry.
But after 1812, a new social thought appeared, and new layers also appeared: the intelligentsia, made up of nobles and raznochintsy.
It was after 1812 that the slaves realized that they were slaves, and the slave owners that they were slave owners. We compared the situation in France and understood our true position.
Therefore, secret societies began to emerge that wanted progress for the country.
2 . Main literary trends eras (first third of the 19th century) and their aesthetics
The main directions: classicism with its prominent representatives Krylov, Derzhavin, in which the features of realism subsequently began to appear and realism itself poured out (Eugene Onegin of Pushkin); sentimentalism (Karamzin, early Zhukovsky), from which romanticism was born. Sentimentalism did not exist in Russia as a broad literary movement. It is also called pre-romanticism.
Romanticism was the largest trend of this period. 3 most important motives of romanticism (motives of world sorrow): disappointment, loneliness, regret.
Aesthetics: mystery, duality, the plot is based on the overcoming of obstacles by a person, the conflict of a person and fate, the victory of fate over the will of a person, a romantic landscape. 3 stages of Russian romanticism: 1) 1810 - Zhukovsky - psychological; 2) 1818-1825 - Decembrist poets - civil 3) 1830-40 - Lermontov, Tyutchev - philosophical
"Classicism" is a term that means "exemplary". Ancient art was most often taken as a model.
The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are intended primarily to capture stable generic features that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
Aesthetics: the law of 3 unities (time, place, action), the law of the unity of style and syllable, the law of the unity of genres, the correspondence of the main characters to the genre of the work, creativity is subject to strict regulation by the mind.
Realism in literature - A true image of reality (Typical characters in typical circumstances).
Aesthetics: 1. Ideal and reality - Realists need to prove that the ideal is real, i.e. he is unreachable.
2. Man and environment are the main problem for realists. Comprehensive image of a person. Medium concept max. extended: material factor, education, upbringing, social circle, etc. 3. Subjective and objective - In realism, only objectivity! The distinction between the author and the hero, emphasizing their difference.
5. The rise of romanticism. Direction. and 6. Romanticism as literary method. Problems of the ideal and reality, man and environment, subjective and objective.
The heyday of Russian romanticism is considered to be the period 1810-1820. By the age of 30, there is new stage development of Russian romanticism (follow the chain of Lermontov - Baratynsky - Tyutchev) In Russia, romanticism was different from Western, so it is sometimes called "complex romanticism"
Romanticism in France is a reaction to the revolution, defeat, the hero is disappointed in the world Hence the motives of loneliness and regret - from this is the motive of world sorrow - therefore the romantic hero does not suit the whole world order, therefore there are no hopes for the future
Until 1925, it was believed that romanticism was just a fashion, because in Russia until this year there was no reason for total disappointment - this is a special feature of romanticism
3 stages of romanticism in Russia:
And another problem of romantics: assessment of the national identity of each culture
The reasoning of the romantics about the form is a rejection of the classic canons. Motivation: the law interferes with creative freedom
Civic romanticism considered the utilitarian role of art in the life of society.
Problems of Romantics
1) the ratio of the ideal and reality: through the application of the principle of two worlds - gap and collision, antithesis: there-here, otherworldly-earthly, heaven-earth, our (their)) time-ancient cities. Often the ideal world can be the world of the past
2) the ratio of man and environment: man - inner world, the world of feelings, passions, interest in the manifestation of passion, but what it is - it does not matter, in Russian romanticism - a person, but what passion drives him ?; about the environment: (this concept first arose among the romantics) the national environment, as a more extensive local point
3) the problem of the relationship between the subjective and the objective: the subjective perception of the author, the romantic does not follow the objective, the world - through the author's perception, the rejection of society, the idea that the individual plays a decisive role in history. Hence the motif of the poet and the crowd. The author and the hero often coincide in psychological mood and assessment.
The hero is not satisfied with the world, the motive of escaping from reality, the principle of two worlds - the real and ideal worlds.
Romanticism (basic rulings):
1) Landscape of the soul instead of a real landscape 2) the hero does not need a name and biography 3) reader-co-author of the work
3 . Features and characteristics of Russian romanticism. Psychological, civic and philosophical romanticism
Romanticism was the largest literary movement in the first third of the 19th century. He arose a reflection of the new historical era in Europe after the French Revolution (1789-1793)
The mood of hopelessness, despair, "world sorrow" is the disease of the century, inherent in the heroes of Chateaubriand, Byron, Musset.
In the 19th century, Russia was in a certain cultural isolation. Romanticism arose several years later than in Europe. We can talk about his some imitation of Russian romanticism, about the absence real reasons for the mood of hopelessness in Russia - romanticism is initially seen as a fashionable literary trend.
The Patriotic War of 1812 awakens the public consciousness of the people - progressive youth will unite in secret societies. She is disappointed by the lack of change in the social inequality of people. - The first reasons for the emergence of real Russian romanticism (this literary trend is no longer just imitation, it was also felt by Russian writers).
1810-1820 - the most active period of Russian romanticism. by the 30s, a new stage in the development of romanticism begins (Lermontov, Baratynsky, Tyutchev)
At the heart of romanticism is the conflict between man and society, the motive of escaping from reality, the ideal world and the real world (two worlds), the motives of world sorrow, in the foreground is the inner world of man, the environment is only scenery, the author's subjective perception of everything that happens (feelings).
The problem of the people. Romanticism solves it through showing nationality, national color, in contrast to the way in realism (show social manifestation)
Therefore, all the motifs characteristic of romanticism as a whole were only reflected, not passed through their soul.
3 stages of romanticism in Russia:
1) 1810s: psychological romanticism (interest in the inner state of the hero, Zhukovsky (and the poets of his school))
2) 1818-1825: civil romanticism (a call for change, the main participants are the Decembrist poets)
3) 1825-1830: philosophical romanticism (motives: no hope of self-realization due to the era of the reaction of Nicholas 1, assessment of oneself and others, Lermontov, Tyutchev,)
A special feature of Pushkin's romanticism: he combined in his works the features of civil and psychological romanticism ("To Chaaadaev")
In general, romanticism is the first literary movement in Russia that becomes scientifically substantiated (theory) - that is, the aesthetics of Russian romanticism is being formed
Therefore, the term "nationality" (color) was introduced - to show the situation and behavior in this situation. (nation-nationality)
But soon problems began: the same problem of nationality. The problem of national character - the question arose: “if you create a national color, take it from history - what should a hero be like? By whom?" - that is, the problem of national character. (what are the characters? And do the characters of different peoples differ?)
And this merit belongs to the Decembrists: it was they who discovered the features of the traits of the national character
But the solution of problems did not end there, because the character was at first perceived as a constant, not subject to change.
4. Literary movements of the first third of the 19th century. Literary struggle and literary criticism. The formation of literary societies and their aesthetics
The need for a unified Russian literary language was obvious. The solution to this problem in Russia took on the polemical-parodic nature of two literary associations - "The Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word" (1811-16) and the "Arzamas Society of Unknown People" (1815-18).
5 . Periodization of Russian literature in the first third of the 19th century. Characteristics of the stages
The historical background is roughly as follows. All kinds of popular peasant unrest spoil the blood of the government of Paul 1. The courtiers also do not lag behind, and from March 11 to March 12, 1801. stage a palace coup. New king Alexander 1, seeing this state of affairs, at first makes some concessions to a liberal-minded society - he allows private printing houses, the import of books from abroad, introduces a new censorship charter that limits administrative interference in the affairs of the press, opens a bunch of universities and gymnasiums, etc. the next item on our program is the war of 1812, which, as a popular and holy war, awakened the people's self-consciousness and revealed the enormous forces of the nation. How noble fury boiled up in a wave, like a Russian. the people freed all of Europe from the French goats, so they directly felt the need for nat. liberation. Hence all the civil and roar. themes in literature. Big talk about the abolition of serfdom, barrels on autocracy and societies. country device.
The literature of this period is extremely sharp. Literary currents and trends collide.
1801 - 1848:
Stage 1: until 1825 - the noble period
Stage 2: 30s
Stage 3: 40s
Early 19th century - sunset time classicism. Derzhavin is still alive, the poets are Radishchevites. The positions of classicism in dramaturgy are still strong (Ozerov, Griboedov)
The satirical tradition continues to develop (Kantemir - the founder, the beginning of the 18th century; Fonvizin - the end of the 18th century): Krylov, in whose fables realism is born.
- Satirical-moral (didactic) literature. Roman Izmailov "Eugene, or the pernicious consequences of education", Narezhny - Gogol's predecessor, "Russian housing, or the adventures of Chistyakov."
- Sentimentalism in Russia. It is inherent in all literary genres: poetry, prose, drama. Karamzin, Dmitriev. The boundaries of sentimentalism and early romanticism erased.
Works of Zhukovsky. He starts as a sentimentalist, then goes beyond and becomes the first Russian romantic.
- Romanticism (1810-1820)
3 stages: 1810 - Zhukovsky (psychological); 1818-1825 Decembrist poets (civil); 1830s - another outbreak of romanticism - Lermontov, Tyutchev (philosophical).
1823-1825 the first realistic works are created: "Woe from Wit" by Griboyedov, "Boris Godunov" by Pushkin.
1840s - realism.
6 . The Problem of the Romantic Hero. The main motives of romanticism
Romanticism is a literary trend and artistic method, the emergence of which is associated with an era of crisis, with a transitional time, when there is a change in social relations and a change public consciousness. This is the expectation of something new, anxiety in front of this new, a hasty desire to know it.
The emergence of romanticism in Europe is associated with the events of the French Revolution of 1789. In Russia, the formation of Romanticism takes place against the backdrop of a powerful social upsurge that swept Russian society after the Patriotic War of 1812.
The main idea is the glorification of a self-sufficient personality, feeling its independence, inexhaustibility and self-worth, with its desire for independence, unwillingness to obey the laws of the surrounding world, limiting the possibilities of the individual.
romantic hero.
This is a non-domestic, non-social person, tragically lonely and restless. It embodies a rebellious beginning, a challenge to reality. But he is internally static, his character does not develop. It is always subjective, it reflects the character of the author. He strives for this unusual and exotic.
The romantic hero, rushing into the open spaces of life, usually correlates with nature. Contrasting nature with the city. Some romantics like the silence and peace of nature, others - restless forces - symbols of liberty and freedom. For many romantics, it is characteristic to turn to folklore. For originality spiritual world and the nature of the people paid little attention.
Aesthetic principles differed from the rules of classical art. Romantics rejected a clear division of heroes into positive and negative, a sharp demarcation of good and evil, subordination to genre regulations, the rule of 3 unities ...
Romantics put forward the principle of creativity based on inspiration, asserted the priority of genius in art. The main thing is a free poetic individuality.
Peculiarities:
1) Romantics reject the outside world. Looking for an ideal outside real life. (Zhukovsky was looking for an ideal in the depths of the human spirit; Batyushkov - in pleasures, joys; Decembrists - in the heroic past)
2) The opposition of dreams and reality. Heroes strive to achieve the ideal, but do not reach it and fail.
3) Romanticism is a reaction to the normative aesthetics of classicism. Reality is better to comprehend by feeling, and not by reason - the cult of the artist.
7 . Formation of Russian literary criticism. The term "nationality" in the aesthetics of Russian romanticism. The Formation of Realistic and Philosophical Criticism
The reasons and the need for criticism is to establish rules, because contradictions have begun within romanticism.
Accompanying the development of literature is literary criticism. The literary struggle stimulates the development of criticism, which becomes a special form of literary art. The literary struggle was waged orally, in lit. Salons. Everyone was for his own direction, even in the directions there were different currents.
The need for a unified Russian literary language was obvious. The solution to this problem in Russia took on the polemical-parodic nature of two literary associations - "The Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word" (1811-16) and the "Arzamas Society of Unknown People" (1815-18).
In the early 1800s, Karamzin wrote several articles (“Why are there so few authorial talents in Russia”), in which he argued that Russians do not know how to express psychological and philosophical points in their native language, but they freely do it in French. It is necessary to bring together the language of the book and colloquial, to erase the differences, to create a new one based on the "Middle" style. Change should come naturally, without breaking. Karamzin's articles immediately met with the resolute disapproval of Admiral Shishkov, who responded to them with the treatise Discourse on the Old and New Syllables of the Russian Language. In it, he defends Russian culture, identity, denies that the nation that unleashed the Jacobin terror, destroyed the monarchy and rejected religion is an example to follow. Shishkov declares that Russia should not assimilate the false Heb. Enlightenment, and protect and protect their nat. Basics. Thus, if Karamzin went forward, then Shishkov turned his whole gaze back. To this end, he turns to the Slavic language of church books, which was no longer spoken in everyday life. So, Karamzin and Shishkov agreed on the need for a single lit. language, but differed in its creation. Karamzin chose the "Medium" syllable, Shishkov - "high" and colloquial styles.
In order to educate future young writers, Shishkov organizes lit. Society "Conversation of lovers of the Russian word", its core was Derzhavin, Krylov, Golenishchev, Shirinsky and others. In addition to them, Kuchelbeiker, Katenin, Griboyedov, Gnedich participated in the meetings. Since 1810.
Then the cup of patience of Karamzin's supporters overflowed, and they decided to answer. Karamzin himself did not take part in the controversy.
8 . The formation of romanticism in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky. Genre originality of Zhukovsky's creativity. Reflections of the events of 1812 ("A singer in the camp of Russian soldiers")
1 period of creativity - Pre-romantic. The main genre is elegy. The main work is a translation of the elegy of the English poet Gray "Rural Cemetery". The features of Zhukovsky's poetic genius are clearly manifested. This work is a reflection on life, on the fate of man in the face of the eternal. It is based on thoughts about life. Interest in the world of the human soul, with its secret and mysterious motives. The peculiarity of the work is its amazing musicality, which allows you to feel a hidden connection with the world of human feelings and moods.
It was the individual that determined the essence of Zhukovsky's poetry. Already in the first elegies of the poet, the inner structure of his soul was reflected, the literary mood, emotional coloring, spirituality of the poet manifested itself.
2 period of creativity - The most important - the formation of romanticism. Elegies, songs, ballads.
The messages revealed feelings caused by the circumstances of the poet's personal life, his social self-awareness. The subtext of Zhukovsky's poems revealed the deep drama of the poet's experiences, his complaints about life. The theme of human loneliness, the inevitability of his suffering in an imperfect world.
Motives of longing and languor, eternal dissatisfaction, striving for the unattainable. Light and reconcilable motives also sound. The tragedy of external being is opposed by the inexhaustible riches of the human soul; joyless life - possible happiness in your inner world.
The theme of the poet and poetry, friendship. Often uses national and foreign material.
During this period, he writes "The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors", where, on behalf of the warrior-poet, he praises the Russian knights who fought in the war of 1812. In it, he gave the patriotic theme a personal, intimate sound, and it became close to every contemporary. Patriotism ceased to be coldly solemn, having warmed itself with the warmth of the poet's soul. The wonderful property of poetry - to spiritualize and animate everything that exists - was brilliantly manifested in the elegy "The Sea". With thoughts about man, Zh. spiritualizes the sea, nature is not indifferent, not dead. As in the human soul, the soul of the sea also has its own, special secret.
In order to express the inner world, the "soul", in the image of a lyrical hero, Zhukovsky had to transform the then poetic structure of Russian poetry. The word contains primary and secondary meanings. Rationalist poetics was built on the basic, objective meanings of words. According to Zhukovsky's descriptions, it is difficult to determine the physical reflection of the object; emotional reflections of the perception of l.g. subject meanings. If we compare the same word “Quiet” in Zhukovsky and Derzhavin, then it is clear that in Zhukovsky it will mean “Pacified”, “giving consent”, etc. Thus, Zhukovsky revives in the word additional emotional shades hidden in the word itself. It is important for the author not only to paint a picture, but to convey his soul, experience through it. Zhukovsky's landscape is always associated with mood.
It is Zhukovsky who is credited with expanding the poetic vocabulary of Russian lyrics. With his elegies, Zhukovsky breathed new content into Russian poetry and transformed its structure. Their content is sad, not because the canons say so, but because of the "worldview that the poet has developed." The predominant tone of Zh.'s poems is fascination with Genesis, the world created by God, and disappointment with society. Since in the real world an abyss lies between an enlightened, deeply moral personality with its great spiritual demands and a bone society, the personality of J. is always desperately lonely. The human soul is immense, and contains the entire universe. The poet believed that in the end the beautiful and the sublime would win. Dvoemirie - is fully displayed in Zhukovsky's TV.
9 . Genre of the ballad in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky. The dispute about the genre of the ballad within the romantic direction
1) Initially, the ballad was a synthesis genre of two types of art (music and literature), because it was a dance song of love content. Moreover, the whole Universe in the ballad was divided into two worlds (“earthly” and “earthly”), and its goal was to show the human soul in both of these worlds. The Russian ballad is associated with the name of V. A. Zhukovsky. In total, he wrote thirty-nine ballads, five of which are original. However, his poetic translations can really compete with the original. After all, the poet takes only plot outline, changing and amending the image of the state of mind. It must be said that all of his poetry is very autobiographical, therefore, unlike Western balladeers, Zhukovsky does not share himself and his heroes, his fate and their life ups and downs. Thus, the poet complicates his task: to reveal the human soul. Therefore, a huge number of motives are introduced into the narrative. It is interesting that in this case the narrative itself is divided into many plots, because the motive is the unit of its construction, which creates the image of an immense and inexplicable soul.
The main motif that "penetrates" all of Zhukovsky's ballads is the motif of wandering, the way. All heroes are shown on the road.
And very often this path is symbolic.
A new motive arises - the motive of two worlds, the line between which is marked by death, also a kind of journey.
It is perceived precisely as the greatest happiness, for there is a transition to Eternity, a movement towards peace. And in order to contrast life before and after death, Zhukovsky deliberately alternates in the ballad "Forest Tsar" the last tense picture of the race:
“The rider urges, the rider galloped ...” (the poet recreates the clatter of horses and the general state of anxiety by repeating words and syllables: rider-rider, jumped) - and a quiet, peaceful state of death: “In his hands a dead baby lay ".
Almost all the heroes of Zhukovsky's ballads dream "of a sweet, of a different light." This largely explains their impulse to wander, to look for something similar. Their homeland is not their homeland, but only a temporary place of residence. Their homeland is the underworld. Such a division of the universe into a moment and eternity contrasts the possibility of feelings in both worlds. It turns out that the motive of another world is revealed with the help of others. Thus, the two worlds are tested by the possibility of love. According to Zhukovsky, love on earth is a faint reflection of heaven. True love is possible only after death (this is another reason for such a passionate desire to bring this hour closer). Having received a “moment of happiness” on earth, heroes always mourn.
Zhukovsky tests his heroes with the ability of the feat of one soul in the name of another. Only in this way can they earn the right to “get” into the heavenly world.
Herself earthly life taken as a test
The other world in Zhukovsky always communicates with the outside. So, with the help of the motives of the road, the other world, death, separation, love, faith, retribution, the unity of man with nature and leitmotifs, Zhukovsky conveys all the doubts and feelings of the human soul and for the first time in Russian literature raises the question of the priority of the spiritual over the material.
2) about the dispute of the ballad genre
The dispute arose after Zhukovsky's translation of Burger's ballad "Lenora" (his version is "Lyudmila"). this is how the controversy between Armazas (Zhukovsky) and the young archaists began in 1816. Many believed that “Lyudmila” lacked Russian flavor, therefore, after Katenin decided to write his own version - “Olga”. Olga, on the other hand, was full of vernacular, so the difference between the two options is in style and language. Griboedov and Somov also opposed Zhukovsky's ballads (in "On Romantic Poetry")
"Arzamas" - (1813) arose as a society focused on polemics with "Conversation". It included Zhukovsky, Vyazemsky, Dashkov, Orlov, Uvarov, Batyushkov, Bludov, Uvarov, the young Pushkin. In contrast to the semi-official "Conversation", the Arzamas people emphasized the provincialism of the "Society of Unknown People", chose a goose as their emblem and jokingly began to repel the attacks of "Conversations". The language of Arzamas speeches, replete with quotations and reminiscences, was designed for a European-educated interlocutor capable of capturing subtle irony. The language of the consecrated. The heavy, majestic darkness of the writings and speeches of Shishkov’s supporters was opposed by the Arzamas people to the light, dandy style of Karamzin, as well as the “Arzamas nonsense”.
But inside the Russian romantics (“Arzamas”) there is a split:
"Young Archaists" - a trend based on the criticism of gallomania - French fashion. They stood for the national character of Russian literature. The language should be as close to the people as possible. It included Griboedov, Katenin, Kuchelbeker.
Between "Arzamas" and "Young Archaists" a dispute arises, which results in a contradiction about the genre of the ballad. After Zhukovsky wrote "Lyudmila", Katenin calls his translation "Olga" (Burger). Difference in style and language: Katenin translated and wrote in a colloquial, folk language, the work turned out to be rude, dissonant.
romanticism is the first literary trend in Russia that becomes scientifically substantiated (theory) - that is, the aesthetics of Russian romanticism is being formed
Therefore, the term "nationality" (color) was introduced - to show the situation and behavior in this situation. (ethnicity=nationality)
10. The formation of realism in Russian literature. Realism as a literary trend I 11. Realism as an artistic method. Problems of the ideal and reality, man and environment, subjective and objective
Realism is a truthful depiction of reality (Typical characters in typical circumstances).
Realism was faced with the task of not only reflecting reality, but also penetrating the essence of the displayed phenomena by revealing their social conditioning and revealing the historical meaning, and most importantly, to recreate the typical circumstances and characters of the era.
1823-1825 - the first realistic works are created. These are Griboedov "Woe from Wit", Pushkin "Eugene Onegin", "Boris Godunov". By the 1940s, realism was on its feet. This era is called "golden", "brilliant". Literary criticism appears, which gives rise to literary struggle and aspiration. And thus appear letters. society.
One of the first Russian writers standing by realism was Krylov.
Realism as an artistic method.
1. Ideal and reality - the realists were faced with the task of proving that the ideal is real. This is the most difficult question, since this question is not relevant in realistic works. Realists need to be shown that the ideal does not exist (they do not believe in the existence of any ideal whatsoever) - the ideal is real, and therefore it is not achievable.
2. Man and environment are main topic realists. Realism assumes a comprehensive depiction of a person, and a person is a product of the environment.
a) environment - extremely expanded (class structure, social environment, material factor, education, upbringing)
b) a person is the interaction of a person with the environment, a person is a product of the environment.
3. Subjective and objective. Realism is objective, typical characters in typical circumstances, shows character in a typical environment. The distinction between the author and the hero (“I am not Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin) In realism - only objectivity (reproduction of phenomena given in addition to the artist), because. realism sets before art the task of faithfully reproducing reality.
The "open" ending is one of the most important signs of realism.
The main achievements of the creative experience of the literature of realism were the breadth, depth and truthfulness of the social panorama, the principle of historicism, new technique artistic generalization (creation of typical and at the same time individualized images), depth psychological analysis, disclosure internal contradictions in psychology and human relationships.
11 . Creativity of I. A. Krylov in the first third of the 19th century. The innovation of Krylov the fabulist. Genre features of fables. Dramaturgical beginning
One of the first Russian writers standing by realism was Krylov. Fables of Krylov. 1809 - 1 collection of fables. Krylov was also influenced french revolution- comprehension of events. Krylov is the son of the Enlightenment, which brought up the kingdom of reason. Life is not subject to imagination, there are laws independent of man. And Krylov decides to write the laws of life - which is our reality. Krylov associated the choice of the fable genre with the problem of nationality. This genre, in his opinion, is the most adequate, with the help of which public opinion can be clearly expressed. One of the tasks was to overcome class differentiation. Here the concept of nationality is understood as understandable to the people, so that it fits their intellect. According to Krylov, the fable has become the optimal genre that could reflect Russian reality, erase class lines. Realism is more evident in the language. The language reform of the fable prepared the language of Russian realism. Krylov was the first who in the fable language saw the need for a moral and psychological division of the speeches of the heroes.
He wrote about 200 fables: "The Oak and the Cane", "The Cuckoo and the Nightingale", "The Fox and the Cheese", "The Monkey and Glasses".
Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795-1826) in his works insists that he is first of all a citizen, valued in his works their citizenship, fighting character, revolutionary spirit. Ryleev believes that the artist should renounce narrow and personal themes. Only that which contributes to the happiness of the fatherland can become the subject of inspiration for the poet. The love theme is alien to him. In the days when "the fatherland suffers", only battle anxieties can give consolation to the fighter-poet.
For the first time, Ryleev's civic patriotism manifested itself in his poem "To the Time Worker" (1820). It was directed against the temporary worker Arakcheev, the royal favorite, the organizer of military settlements. Making a merciless condemnation of the despotic favorite, the poet turns to the harshest epithets: “arrogant”, “mean and treacherous” temporary worker, “violent” tyrant, “cunning flatterer”, and finally - a scoundrel. But next to the image of a temporary worker in the poem, the image of the Poet, the Citizen, a proud, independent personality appears. The poem clearly shows civil position Ryleev - to evaluate a statesman not by the rank he occupies, but by the benefit that he brought to the Fatherland, by what he did for the people. Ryleev's civil courage was manifested in his angry words addressed to the tyrant:
Oh, how on the lyre I will try to glorify him,
Who will save my fatherland from you!
The pathos of citizenship is also imbued with the cycle of historical “Dums” by Ryleev, written in the spirit of civil-heroic romanticism in 1821-1823. In a printed preface, the poet explained their purpose with the words: “to remind youth of the exploits of their ancestors, to acquaint them with the brightest epochs of folk history, to make love for the fatherland with the first impressions of memory.” The historical range of thoughts is very wide - from the 10th to the beginning of the 19th century, from the exploits of Oleg Prophetic to death Derzhavin. So a kind of Russian history in verse was created - a series of paintings that restore heroic deeds past centuries. The poet glorifies the masculinity shown in the struggle for national independence and the independence of the motherland, for the liberation of the people from foreign domination. And in his thoughts the images of Vadim, Olga, Dmitry Donskoy, Yermak, Susanin, Bogdan Khmelnitsky, fighters against internal tyrants who trample on the rights and freedoms of the individual (images of Kurbsky and Volynsky), patriots who marked themselves with military exploits for the greatness of their fatherland (images of Svyatoslav And Prophetic Oleg. Turning to the past, the poet wanted to show that the ideals of the most progressive people of his time are based on the best traditions of the people in their battles for national independence and freedom. For the sake of this goal, he deliberately neglected historical authenticity and deliberately transformed his heroes, endowing them with the features of his time. To resurrect history in order to arouse the valor of contemporaries by the glorious deeds of their ancestors - this is the main intention of Ryleev.
The highest achievement of Ryleyev's political evolution is the poem "Voynarovsky" - a work that resurrected episodes of Mazepa's treacherous policy. The main theme of the poem is the struggle for the national independence of Ukraine. The poet portrays his hero Voinarovsky as a brave tyrant-hater, accustomed from childhood to “honor Brutus”, the soul of a “truly free” and noble “defender of Rome”. This is a fiery patriot, ready for any sacrifice for the sake of the motherland. For Ryleev's contemporaries, these words sounded like an oath of allegiance to the motherland and a call for civic sacrifice.
Ryleev based the poem on a real historical event, intending to emphasize the scale and drama of the personal destinies of the heroes - Voynarovsky, his wife and Mazepa. The author in the poem is deliberately separated from the hero. Thanks to the broad historical background against which the real historical hero- an outstanding personality, strong-willed, purposeful, in Voinarovsky the narrative element is strengthened compared to thoughts. However, Ryleev's poem remained romantic. Although the hero separated from the author, he acted as the bearer of the author's ideas. Ryleev connects Voinarovsky with a historically unjust social movement, and the hero in exile thinks about the real content of his activity, trying to understand whether he was a toy in the hands of Mazepa or an associate of the hetman. This allows the poet to keep lofty image hero and at the same time show Voinarovsky at a spiritual crossroads. Unlike the heroes of thoughts languishing in prison or exile, who remain whole individuals, have no doubts about the rightness of their cause and respect for their offspring, the exiled Voinarovsky is no longer completely convinced of his justice, and he dies without any hope for the people's memory, lost and forgotten.
12 . Russian romantic poem. Structural and genre features. Kozlov "Chernets", Ryleev "Voinarovsky", Baratynsky "Eda"
The poem is an expression of Kozlov's conscious desire to create an independent romantic poem based on Russian material. Kozlov is one of the first Russian Byronists. Kozlov is trying to create an apotheosis for Byron, to cover his entire life, his social and family clashes, speaks of the poet's love of freedom, of the flame of fatal passions. "Chernets" (1825) - a poem that brought fame to Kozlov. The unfortunate fate of the poet, who was bedridden, who also had to lose his hearing and sight, extremely fueled interest in Kozlov. And the "Byronic" image of the hero - Chernets - received psychological certainty. The content of the poem is as follows: in one of the Kyiv cloisters, a monk, "a young sufferer", takes refuge. He arrived there at night, in a storm, his fate is mysterious. One day he told the monastery elder about himself. He grew up a homeless orphan, did not know his native affection: "When my peers played, I was already thinking." He had no one to love, he lived unsociable:
I had nothing to lose.
I had no one to part with.
And then a gray-haired warrior with his wife and seventeen-year-old daughter came to his native land from the Neva banks. The young man fell in love with the girl, and her parents betrothed them. There was already a wedding. But suddenly a rival appeared, a distant relative of his beloved, and began to cunningly flatter, forcibly force the maiden into marriage. In humiliation of the opponent, it is said that he betrayed his honor when he served as a cornet in the Polish army. The mother of the beloved virgin dies, and the insidious rival began to take possession of the soul of her father, and he betrays this word. The hero of the poem decided to act boldly:
He despised the villain, took his daughter away
And secretly married her.
For a whole year the couple lived happily, they were already expecting a baby. But the evil rival slandered the beloved and said that the daughter was cursed by the father. Daughter can't take it ordeal and dies in terrible agony. The newborn son also dies. The hero buried them and left the land where he was orphaned. But in his soul he always bore the image of a wife and a baby, imagined them blissful in paradise and wanted to unite with them as soon as possible. And then one day, visiting their grave in a clearing, he meets his rival on horseback, the murderer of his son and wife. He has no forgiveness. The hero strikes the villain with a dagger when he tried to draw a saber. In a terrible mental shock, he wanders through the fields, suddenly hears the bell for matins and finds himself in the temple. But what can he pray for now? In spiritual depression, he realizes that now it is even more difficult to unite with his beloved . The murderer came to the monastery for repentance. He prays before the icons. And then one day his wife appears before him, in a white veil. Etane was a delusion of the imagination. It was she with the baby in her arms. She tells her husband that he is forgiven by heaven. He rushes to her, and her shadow disappears. In terrible agony, the hero dies.
The mastery of the verse is impeccable, almost Pushkin's lightness, you can even catch the features of the brewing sharp Lermontov contrast. Here are some more examples:
I had everything, I lost everything ... It all gives elasticity to the style. Kozlov perceived "Byronism" in terms of suffering. Only Lermontov - a "Byronist" with a Russian soul - will convey the full power of Byron's grief and protest, the thirst for active action against evil.
Ryleev has always been distinguished by exceptional honesty and disinterestedness. He kept the title of revolutionary pure. These noble moral qualities Ryleev also poeticized in the heroes of his works. The central image of the poem "Voynarovsky" belonged to them. In it, Ryleev strove for historical truthfulness. He attached great importance to the descriptions of the Siberian region, achieving ethnographic, geographical and everyday accuracy. Ryleev introduced into the poem many real details concerning the nature, customs and life of a harsh land.
Ryleev based the poem on a real historical event, intending to emphasize the scale and drama of the personal destinies of the heroes - Voynarovsky, his wife and Mazepa. The author in the poem is deliberately separated from the hero. Due to the broad historical background, against which a real historical hero appears - an outstanding, strong-willed, purposeful personality, the narrative element in Voinarovsky is strengthened compared to thoughts. However, Ryleev's poem remained romantic. Although the hero separated from the author, he acted as the bearer of the author's ideas. Ryleev's image of Voinarovsky has split in two: on the one hand, Voinarovsky is depicted as personally honest and not privy to Mazepa's plans. He cannot be held responsible for the secret intentions of the traitor, since they are unknown to him. On the other hand, Ryleev connects Voinarovsky with a historically unjust social movement, and the hero in exile thinks about the real content of his activity, trying to understand whether he was a toy in the hands of Mazepa or an associate of the hetman. This allows the poet to preserve the high image of the hero and at the same time show Voinarovsky at a spiritual crossroads. Unlike the heroes of thoughts languishing in prison or exile, who remain whole individuals, have no doubts about the rightness of their cause and respect for their offspring, the exiled Voinarovsky is no longer completely convinced of his justice, and he dies without any hope for the people's memory, lost and forgotten.
Muting love story, Ryleev highlights the social motives of the hero's behavior, his civic feelings. The drama of the poem lies in the fact that the tyrannical hero, in whose sincere and convinced love of freedom the author has no doubt, is placed in circumstances that make him appreciate the life he has lived. Voinarovsky does not reproach himself for his feelings. And in exile he holds the same convictions as in the wild. He is strong, courageous man who prefers torment to suicide. All his soul is still turned to native land. He dreams of the freedom of his homeland and longs to see her happy. However, hesitations and doubts constantly burst into Voinarovsky's thoughts. They relate primarily to the enmity between Mazepa and Peter, the activities of the hetman and the Russian tsar. Before your last hour Voynarovsky does not know who his homeland found in Petra - an enemy or a friend, just as he does not understand the secret intentions of Mazepa, but this means that Voynarovsky does not understand the meaning own life: if Mazepa was led by vanity, personal self-interest, if he wanted to "erect a throne", then, consequently, Voynarovsky became a participant in a wrong deed, but if Mazepa is a hero, then Voynarovsky's life was not in vain. The poet does not hide the weaknesses of Voinarovsky. Civic passion filled the whole soul of the hero, but he is forced to admit that he did not understand much in historical events, although he was their direct and active protagonist. In his poem, as in his thoughts, the content of history was the struggle of tyrant-fighters and patriots against autocracy. Therefore, Peter, Mazepa and Voinarovsky were portrayed one-sidedly. Peter in Ryleev's poem is only a tyrant, while Mazepa and Voinarovsky are freedom lovers who oppose despotism. Meanwhile, the content of the real historical conflict it was immeasurably more difficult. Mazepa and Voinarovsky acted quite consciously and did not personify civic prowess.
In the poem "Voynarovsky" Ryleev came face to face with a life situation that would interest him in the future. Voinarovsky acknowledges the possibility of personal delusion. His subjective intentions diverged from the objective meaning of the social movement to which he joined.
romanticism realism lyrics literature
13 . Civil lyrics of the poets of the Decembrists. Genre of a romantic poem (V. F. Raevsky, F. N. Glinka, V. K. Kuchelbeker, P. A. Katenin)
1) The poetic movement associated with Decembrism grew up on the basis of the struggle against the foundations of the feudal serf system. Decembrist poets approved public role poetry, its civic purpose.
In search of an effective and politically purposeful artistic word, the Decembrist poets sharply diverged from the sentimental-elegiac direction of the Zhukovsky school and were the heirs and successors of the Radishchev revolutionary traditions. The political differentiation among the Decembrists, who were divided into more left and more right, also determined the degree of progressiveness of their literary activity. From this point of view, of course, the political positions of Ryleev, this most revolutionary Decembrist poet, are incommensurable, for example, with the positions of F. Glinka or Katenin: it is no coincidence that Glinka belonged to the extremely moderate wing of the Welfare Union, and Katenin, an active figure in the Decembrist movement on its early stage.
The most characteristic feature of the work of the Decembrist poets was a deep interest in Russian national history, patriotic pride in the heroic past of their homeland. The most important thematic line of the Decembrist poetry was the reproduction of great historical events and images of the heroes of the past, reflecting the freedom-loving spirit of the Russian people in their struggle for freedom and national independence. Ancient Novgorod, with its veche system and republican liberties, aroused special sympathy among the Decembrists. In their literary activity, the Decembrists did not close themselves within the boundaries of Russian history and culture, drawing widely on materials from the history of other peoples. Antique images became a kind of conventional symbols for designating very specific phenomena of modern Russian political and social life.
The system of “adjustments” among the Decembrist poets, pursuing certain goals of circumventing censorship, at the same time also reflected a characteristic feature of their artistic method. Along with the critical jet in outline and evaluation social reality, elements of propaganda-political symbolism and allegorism stand out quite clearly in Decembrist poetry. Allegorical forms were, in particular, the favorite method of F. N. Glinka.
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The 19th century gave rise to a large number of talented Russian prose writers and poets. Their works quickly broke into world culture and took their rightful place in it. The work of many authors around the world was influenced by them. The general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century became the subject of a separate section in literary criticism. Undoubtedly, events in political and social life served as prerequisites for such a rapid cultural take-off.
Story
The main trends in art and literature are formed under the influence of historical events. If in XVIII century social life in Russia was relatively measured, the next century included many important ups and downs that influenced not only the further development of society and politics, but also the formation of new trends and trends in literature. The striking historical milestones of this period were the war with Turkey, the invasion of the Napoleonic army, the execution of oppositionists, the abolition of serfdom and many other events. All of them are reflected in art and culture. A general description of Russian literature of the 19th century cannot do without mentioning the creation of new stylistic norms. The genius of the art of the word was A. S. Pushkin. This great century begins with his work.
Literary language
Main merit of the brilliant Russian poet was the creation of new poetic forms, stylistic devices and unique, previously unused plots. Pushkin managed to achieve this thanks to the all-round development and excellent education. Once he set himself the goal of achieving all the heights in education. And he reached it by his thirty-seven years. Atypical and new for that time were Pushkin's heroes. The image of Tatyana Larina combines beauty, intelligence and features of the Russian soul. This literary type there were no analogues in our literature before. Answering the question: “What is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century?”, A person who has at least basic philological knowledge will remember such names as Pushkin, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. But it was the author of "Eugene Onegin" who made a revolution in Russian literature.
Romanticism
This concept originates from the Western medieval epic. But to XIX century it has acquired new shades. Having originated in Germany, romanticism also penetrated the work of Russian authors. In prose, this direction is characterized by the desire for mystical motives and folk legends. In poetry, there is a desire to transform life for the better and chanting folk heroes. The opposition movement of the Decembrists and their tragic end became fertile ground for poetic creativity. The general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century is marked by romantic moods in the lyrics, which were quite common in the poems of Pushkin and other poets of his galaxy. As for prose, new forms of the story appeared, among which the fantastic genre occupies an important place. Vivid examples romantic prose early works of Nikolai Gogol.
Sentimentalism
With the development of this direction, Russian literature of the 19th century begins. general characteristics sentimental prose is sensibility and emphasis on the perception of the reader. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russian literature as early as late XVIII century. Karamzin became the founder of the Russian tradition in this genre. In the 19th century, he had a number of followers.
satirical prose
It was at this time that satirical and journalistic works appeared. This trend can be traced primarily in the work of Gogol. Start your creative journey with a description small homeland, this author later moved on to all-Russian social topics. It is difficult to imagine today what Russian literature of the 19th century would be without this master of satire. The general characteristic of his prose in this genre is not only critical eye to the stupidity and parasitism of the landowners. The satirist writer "walked" through almost all sectors of society. The masterpiece of satirical prose was the novel "Lord Golovlev", dedicated to the theme of the poor spiritual world of the landowners. Subsequently, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, like the books of many other satirical writers, became the starting point for the emergence of socialist realism.
realistic novel
In the second half of the century, the development of realistic prose takes place. romantic ideals turned out to be untenable. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a thing as Russian literature of the 19th century. The general characteristic is briefly a list of important features of this period and the prerequisites for the emergence of certain phenomena. As for the realistic prose of Dostoevsky, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author were a reaction to the moods that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting in his works the prototypes of people he knew, he sought to consider and solve the most pressing issues of the society in which he moved. In the first decades, Mikhail Kutuzov was glorified in the country, then the romantic Decembrists.
This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. A general description of the end of the century fits in a couple of words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the whole people that came to the fore, but of its individual representatives. Hence the appearance in prose of the image " extra person».
folk poem
In the years when the realistic novel took the leading position, poetry faded into the background. A general description of the development of Russian literature in the 19th century allows us to trace long haul from dreamy poetry to true romance. In this atmosphere, Nekrasov creates his brilliant work. But his work can hardly be attributed to one of the leading genres of the mentioned period. The author combined several genres in his poem: peasant, heroic, revolutionary.
End of the century
At the end of the 19th century, one of the most read authors became Chekhov. Despite the fact that at the beginning of his career, critics accused the writer of coldness to current social topics, his works received an undeniable public acceptance. Continuing to develop the image of the "little man" created by Pushkin, Chekhov studied the Russian soul. various philosophical and political ideas which have been developed in late XIX century, could not but affect life individual people. Revolutionary sentiments prevailed in late 19th-century literature. Among the authors whose work was at the turn of the century, one of the most prominent personalities was Maxim Gorky.
The general characteristics of Russian classical literature of the 19th century deserve closer attention. Every major representative this period created his art world, whose heroes dreamed of the unrealizable, struggled with social evil or experienced their own little tragedy. AND the main task their authors was to reflect the realities of the century, rich in social and political events.
The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story " Stationmaster».
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's Dead Souls, the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys dead Souls, various types of landlords, who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism affects). In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
http://jordencook.com/maps341 Since the middle of the 19th century, the Russian realistic literature, which is created against the backdrop of a tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis in the serf system is brewing, contradictions between the government and common people. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the ways historical development Russia.
Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry somewhat subsides. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce into poetry social issues. Known for his poem “Who in Rus' to live well? ”, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.
visit web page The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of a small literary genre - a story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, hallmarks which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. From this opens new page in the history of Russian literature.
Features are due to the close connection of literature with the history of the country's development and the specifics of socio-political life. By the beginning of the 19th century, the most elementary freedoms were absent in Russia: speech, assembly, and the press. Therefore, important social and philosophical problems could not be discussed openly, on the pages of the press or in public institutions. A. Herzen perfectly said this in the 19th century: “For a people deprived of public freedom, literature is the only tribune, from the height of which he makes the cry of his indignation and his conscience heard” (T.3, 1956, p. 443.)
By virtue of what has been said literature in Russia is becoming the leading form of social consciousness, those. incorporates philosophy, politics, aesthetics and ethics. This syncretism of Russian literature was well understood by many writers and critics: “In our belles-lettres and in criticism of works of art the whole sum of our ideas about society and the individual was reflected” (Pisarev, vol. 1, 1955, p. 192). So, the peculiarity of Russian literature of the 19th century is due to the impossibility in other forms to reflect the most burning problems of our time.
Therefore, the Russian public perceived literature as a phenomenon of social self-consciousness, and writers as the spiritual leaders of the nation, defenders and saviors. “A poet in Russia is more than a poet,” E. Yevtushenko will say later. It was this role of literature that made Russian writers of the 19th century feel their responsibility to society. put important philosophical, social and psychological problems in the works.
The central problems of the 19th century were questions about the ways of developing Russian society, improving the life of the people and the individual.
An important feature of Russian literature was its positive start. Even V. G. Belinsky put forward the demand: "Any criticism of reality and any denial must be carried out in the name of the ideal." And although the leading method of literature of the second half of the 19th century is critical realism, with its sharp denunciation of social shortcomings, in the literature there is no what is now referred to as "chernukha". This feature of Russian literature caught the eye of the foreign reader.
Awareness of his high destiny and responsibility to society led to the high ideological content of Russian literature of the 19th century. She was not just an "aesthetic toy" and a means of entertainment. Its important feature was also attention to the common people.
By class, Russian writers of the first half of the 19th century were nobles. In the second half of the century, literature was replenished with raznochintsy, but the leading place in it continued to be occupied by the nobles. However, in terms of ideology, our literature was not landowner's, and either defended universal ideals (honor, dignity, justice, kindness, etc.), or stood up for the defense of the people. Attention to the people was due to a number of reasons.
a) humanistic views of the enlightened nobility. The plight in which the serfs were forced writers to think about ways to change the situation.
b) the understanding that sharp class and economic contradictions can end in a social explosion.
Next Feature literature 19th century - her peculiar functioning in society. The existence of strict censorship, on the one hand, and the need to spread new progressive views, on the other hand, led to the fact that in the first third of the 19th century literature existed not only in written form. Unpublished works were read in the salons of St. Petersburg and Moscow, discussed at meetings of literary circles and societies, and, thanks to this, advanced ideas penetrated the broad masses.
Salons- associations more designed for aesthetic communication and entertainment than for serious literary discussions.
IN literary societies a single concept of creativity is already being developed. This is an association of like-minded people.
Questions to the section "Peculiarities of Russian literature"
- Why was literature in 19th century Russia not only an aesthetic, but also a social phenomenon?
- How did this determine the role of the writer and poet? And what is this role in our time?
- How do you understand the "positive beginning of the literature of the 19th century"?
- How did the advanced works exist in the conditions of severe censorship? What role did mugs and salons play in the literary process of the early 19th century? Literary societies?
What is the difference between a literary salon and literary society?
4. The problem of periodization of Russian literature of the 19th century.
Throughout almost the entire 20th century, our literary criticism was forced to rigidly link the history of literature with the history of the social movement in Russia. This periodization was based on the periods of the liberation movement in Russia. In the perestroika years, this approach was rejected as overly politicized and not reflecting the specifics of literature. It was recognized that the periodization of literature cannot be a reflection of historical periodization. Literature, although connected with history, has specific patterns. It is necessary to single out the periods of its development, proceeding from the laws of the literature itself. Scientists agree that periodization should be based on aesthetic criteria. The search for these criteria was intensively conducted in the late 1990s. They were reflected in the discussions in the journal Questions of Literature. A single criterion has not yet been developed, it is recognized that there may be several such criteria: the predominance of certain genres in one or another literary period, a special solution to the problem of the hero, the dominance of a certain method.
But even taking into account the aesthetic criteria, the periodization of literature is largely arbitrary. After all, the trends and techniques of the new period do not arise at one moment. They are born gradually in the bowels of the previous period.
Currently, on the basis of aesthetic differences in the literature of the 19th century, three periods are distinguished.
The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin .
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. Nevertheless, central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem "Mtsyri", the poetic story "Demon", many romantic poems are known.
Interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on political life countries are poems by A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by English historical novels W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story "The Captain's Daughter", where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal job exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol was designated the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism affects).
In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
Since the middle of the 19th century, Russian realistic literature has been developing, which is created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that prevailed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. The crisis of the feudal system is brewing, the contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.
Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry somewhat subsides. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who is living well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.
Russian literature of the 20th century: general characteristics
Description of the literary process of the 20th century, presentation of the main literary movements and directions. Realism. Modernism(symbolism, acmeism, futurism). literary vanguard.
Late XIX - early XX centuries. become the time of the bright flowering of Russian culture, its "silver age" ("golden age" was called Pushkin's time). In science, literature, art, new talents appeared one after another, bold innovations were born, different directions, groupings and styles competed. At the same time, the culture of the "Silver Age" was characterized by deep contradictions, characteristic of the entire Russian life of that time.
The rapid breakthrough of Russia in development, the clash of different ways and cultures changed self-consciousness creative intelligentsia. Many were no longer satisfied with the description and study of visible reality, the analysis of social problems. I was attracted by deep, eternal questions - about the essence of life and death, good and evil, human nature. Revived interest in religion; the religious theme had a strong influence on the development of Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century.
However, the critical era not only enriched literature and art: it constantly reminded writers, artists and poets of the coming social explosions, that the whole habitual way of life, the whole old culture, could perish. Some were waiting for these changes with joy, others with longing and horror, which brought pessimism and anguish into their work.
At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. literature developed in other historical conditions than before. If you look for a word that characterizes key features period under review, it will be the word "crisis". Great scientific discoveries shook the classical ideas about the structure of the world, led to a paradoxical conclusion: "matter has disappeared." The new vision of the world, thus, will also determine the new face of the realism of the 20th century, which will differ significantly from the classical realism of its predecessors. Also devastating to the human spirit was a crisis of faith (" God dead!" exclaimed Nietzsche). This led to the fact that the man of the 20th century began to increasingly experience the influence of non-religious ideas. The cult of sensual pleasures, the apology of evil and death, the glorification of the self-will of the individual, the recognition of the right to violence that turned into terror - all these features testify to the deepest crisis of consciousness.
In Russian literature of the beginning of the 20th century, a crisis of old ideas about art and a sense of the exhaustion of past development will be felt, a reassessment of values will be formed.
Literature update, its modernization will cause the emergence of new trends and schools. The rethinking of the old means of expression and the revival of poetry will mark the onset of the "silver age" of Russian literature. This term is associated with the name N. Berdyaeva, who used it in one of the speeches in the salon of D. Merezhkovsky. Later, the art critic and editor of "Apollo" S. Makovsky reinforced this phrase by naming his book about Russian culture at the turn of the century "On Parnassus of the Silver Age." Several decades will pass and A. Akhmatova will write "... silver month brightly / Above the silver age froze".
The chronological framework of the period defined by this metaphor can be described as follows: 1892 - the exit from the era of timelessness, the beginning of a social upsurge in the country, the manifesto and collection "Symbols" by D. Merezhkovsky, the first stories of M. Gorky, etc.) - 1917. According to another point of view, the chronological end of this period can be considered 1921-1922 (the collapse of past illusions, which began after the death of A. Blok and N. Gumilyov mass emigration of figures of Russian culture from Russia, the expulsion of a group of writers, philosophers and historians from the country).
