Chapter 2 The subject and tasks of cultural studies Culture can grow and develop only on the basis of life ... F. Nietzsche Among the humanities, cultural studies is one of the youngest. As a science, it took shape by the middle of the 20th century, although the problems that can be attributed to culturological,

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16.6. The subject of cultural studies of education The cultural approach, if consistently applied to the field of education and activities in this area, opens up a new dimension at the intersection of the philosophy of education, pedagogy and cultural studies itself. Let us characterize this new

2 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES, STRUCTURE OF CULTUROLOGY Culturology is a field of science that has been formed on the basis of social-scientific and humanitarian knowledge. A significant role in substantiating this science and fixing its name as cultural studies belongs to English

07.10.09 Kasatkina T.A. Dostoevsky: the structure of the image - the structure of a person - the structure of the life situation Khoruzhy SS: Today we have a report by Tatyana Alexandrovna Kasatkina on the anthropology of Dostoevsky. And I must say, as a small preface, that I am special.

Topic 1. Culture as a subject of cultural studies 1.1. Culture: a variety of definitions and approaches to study The word "culture" appeared in the Latin language, its original meaning is "cultivation", "processing", "care", "education", "education", "development". Researchers

1.5. Theoretical foundations of cultural studies Before proceeding to the analysis of the main types of culture, it is important to understand a number of theoretical provisions. It is known that the world of culture is diverse, so it is necessary to distinguish between different types of culture. By their focus on objects, types

Section I FOUNDATIONS OF CULTUROLOGY

Until recently, culture has been studied, including in high school, within the framework of long-established scientific disciplines: philosophy, history, linguistics, ethnography, art history, archeology. Traditional sciences studied certain types and elements of culture: language, law, morality, art. However, it gradually became clear that such an approach is narrow and does not give a holistic view of culture as a complex, multifaceted phenomenon, represented in all spheres of public life. In the middle of the 20th century, the formation of cultural studies began as a general, integral science of culture, as an independent scientific discipline. Culturology gradually acquires its status, subject, appropriate research methods. The term "culturology" itself began to be used from early XIX centuries. At the beginning of the 20th century, an American scientist L. White (1900-1975)introduced the term "culturology" into a wide scientific circulation and justified the need general theory culture.

At present, culturology has not yet completely separated from philosophy and specific sciences. It is formed on the basis of these sciences and takes a lot from them: the categorical apparatus, principles, methodology and research methods.

At the present stage cultural studies It appears as a science that studies culture as a complex system that is in constant development and in relationships with other systems and society as a whole.

Culturology includes two main sections:

Theoretical cultural studies;
- empirical and applied cultural studies.

TO theoretical level includes all types of knowledge of culture, which provide the development and construction of a scientific theory of culture, i.e. a logically organized system of knowledge about culture, its essence, patterns of functioning and development. In the system of theoretical knowledge of culture, general and particular theories of culture are distinguished. To the main problems general theory of culture include the problems of its essence, structure, functions, genesis, historical dynamics, typology. Private theories of culture study certain spheres, types and aspects of culture. Within their framework, economic, political, legal, moral, aesthetic, religious culture, the culture of everyday life, the service sector, management, the culture of the individual, the culture of communication, and the management of culture are studied.

TO empirical level includes those forms of scientific knowledge of culture, thanks to which the accumulation, fixation, processing and systematization of material about specific cultures and their components is ensured. The empirical level provides the most concrete, detailed and diverse knowledge about culture.

Applied Cultural Studies uses fundamental knowledge about culture in order to solve practical problems, as well as to predict, design and regulate cultural processes.

The theoretical and empirical levels of the study of culture are organically interconnected and presuppose each other. Empirical research provides material for theoretical generalizations and is a criterion for testing the truth and effectiveness of a theoretical concept. The theory logically combines empirical data and gives them a semantic explanation, interpretation.

In addition, theory guides empirical research. Whether the researcher is aware of it or not, it is the theory, the theoretical idea, the idea that provide guidance on what to study, how to study, and why to study.

2) Eastern Mediterranean - home of three world religions.

In the world-historical process, different religions play different roles.

The most noticeable, as indicated, is performed by those that are accepted

call the world according to the number of believers: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam.

It was these religions that showed maximum adaptability to changing

social relations and went far beyond the territory where

originally arose. The religions of the world have never remained unchanged, and

transformed in accordance with the course of history. Origin of the world

religions is no different from the origin of religions in general. They have become global

immediately, but only in the course of the historical process.

Buddhism originated in India in the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. under the dominance

slaveholding relations. Early Buddhism is characterized by the desire

indicate a way out of the plight of people in the recognition of their spiritual equality,

supposedly enabling everyone to seek salvation, regardless of their

social position. Formed at the beginning as one of the many sects

(or philosophical schools) of North India, Buddhism then spread widely

throughout India, and later in the countries of South, Southeast and Central Asia. He

showed great plasticity, incorporating religious beliefs and cultures

different countries.

Christianity, originating originally in the Eastern Mediterranean in

Jewish ethnic environment as one of the sects of Judaism, later, although not immediately,

but decisively broke with this maternal foundation, entering into

contradiction. Almost ousted from its homeland, Christianity found

extraordinary power of expansion. In the 1st century n. e. it spread among the slaves -

freedmen, poor or disenfranchised, conquered or dispersed by Rome

peoples. And then, in the course of the historical process, it penetrated into all zones of the earthly

ball.

This was largely facilitated by the rejection of Christianity from ethnic,

social restrictions and sacrifices. The main ideas of Christianity -

the redemptive mission of Jesus Christ, the second coming of Christ, the Last Judgment,

heavenly reward, the establishment of the kingdom of heaven.

Christianity has three branches: Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism,

which, in turn, includes currents - Lutheranism, Calvinism,

Anglicanism.

Islam originated in Arabia in the 7th century. n. e. in other social conditions. In contrast

from Buddhism and Christianity, it arose not spontaneously, but as a result of

purposeful actions of the feudal Arab nobility, interested in

joining forces to carry out territorial seizures and trade

expansion. Islam has spread widely among many countries in Asia and Africa.

The historical fate of all three world religions, despite their diversity

historical environment has something in common. Originating originally in one

certain ethnic cultural environment, each of these three religions in

further spread widely in different countries, falling into various conditions,

flexibly adapting and simultaneously influencing them. Already this alone

circumstance says a lot from the point of view of the interaction of these religions

and the arts of various peoples.

3) The Bible as a cultural monument.

The Bible is a collection of ancient folklore.

The Bible is considered to be the Book of Books. She consistently ranks 1st in

world in terms of honor and readability, total circulation, frequency of publishing and

translations into other languages. On its meaning for believing Christians in general

do not have to speak. The Bible is the symbol and banner of the culture of almost two

millennia. The Bible is the life of entire peoples and states, cities and villages,

communities and families, generations and individuals. According to the bible are born and

die, marry and marry, educate and punish, judge and rule,

learn and create. They swear on the Bible, as on the most holy of all that is only

can be found on the ground. The Bible has long and irrevocably entered the flesh and blood

everyday life and spoken language. Biblicalisms with which our

speech and which have long turned into sayings, many do not even notice (voice

crying in the desert, a scapegoat, whoever does not work does not eat, bury

talent into the ground, unbelieving Thomas, etc.).

It is unlikely that there will be another such monument in the history of writing, about which

they wrote so much, they would argue as much as the Bible. And they were hardly given alone

the book has such different assessments - from religious admiration for it to

humorous retelling of biblical stories (Leo Taxil "Entertaining

Bible"). In the religious literature we also find many writings,

The Bible is a collection of dozens of religious and historical books,

legislative, prophetic and literary and artistic content. IN

It is divided into two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. Christians recognize

both of these parts are sacred, but the New

covenant. Only the Old Testament refers to the history of the ancient East, the most

voluminous parts of the Bible.

The Old Testament is divided into three major sections: 1 - Pentateuch; 2-

Prophets; 3 - Scriptures. The five books of the first section are Genesis, Exodus,

Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. The second section includes the books "Jesus

Nun", "Judges", two "Books of Samuel", two "Books of Kings", stories about

twelve "minor prophets". The third section includes the "Psalter", "Parables

Solomon", "Job", "Song of Songs", "Ruth", "Lamentations of Jeremiah", "Book

preacher" ("Ecclesiastes"), "Esther", the books of the prophets Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah,

two books of Chronicles.

4) The ideals of the culture of the Enlightenment.

The era of the European Enlightenment occupies an exceptional place in history

human civilization due to the global scale and long-term

value. The chronological framework of this era is determined by a major German

scientist W. Windelband as a century between the Glorious Revolution in England and

The Great French Revolution of 1789 Socio-economic prerequisites

cultures of the Enlightenment are the crisis of feudalism and began three

centuries earlier, the development of capitalist relations in Western Europe.

The defining feature of Enlightenment culture is the idea of ​​progress,

which is closely intertwined with the concept of "mind". Here it is necessary to take into account

a change in the understanding of “mind” - until the middle of the 17th century. mind, perceived

philosophers as a “part of the soul”, after Locke it becomes more of a process

thinking, acquiring at the same time the function of activity. Closely related to

science, the mind becomes its main tool. It was during the Age of Enlightenment

the concept of “belief in progress through reason” was formulated, which determined

long-term development of European civilization and brought a number of destructive

consequences for humanity.

The culture of the enlighteners is characterized by the absolutization of the importance of education in

the formation of a new person. It seemed to the figures of that era that enough

Short description

Until recently, culture was studied, including in higher education, within the framework of long-established scientific disciplines: philosophy, history, linguistics, ethnography, art history, archeology. Traditional sciences studied certain types and elements of culture: language, law, morality, art. However, it gradually became clear that such an approach is narrow and does not give a holistic view of culture as a complex, multifaceted phenomenon, represented in all spheres of public life. In the middle of the 20th century, the formation of cultural studies began as a general, integral science of culture, as an independent scientific discipline. Culturology is gradually acquiring its status, subject, research methods corresponding to it. The term "culturology" itself has been used since the beginning 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, the American scientist L. White (1900-1975) introduced the term "culturology" into a wide scientific circulation and substantiated the need for a general theory of culture.

There are dozens of such components. Often such familiar phrases as national culture, world culture, urban culture, Christian culture, social culture, art culture, personal culture, etc. Morphology of culture involves the study of all possible variations of cultural forms and artifacts, depending on their historical, geographical and social distribution.

The structure of culture. In accordance with modern ideas, the following structure of culture can be outlined. In a single field of culture, two levels are distinguished: specialized and ordinary. Ordinary culture - a set of ideas, norms of behavior, cultural phenomena associated with the daily life of people. Specialized culture level subdivided into cumulative(accumulation of professional and socio-cultural experience) and translational. At the cumulative level, culture acts as a relationship of elements, each of which is a consequence of a person's predisposition to a certain activity. These include: economic culture, political culture, legal culture, philosophical culture, religious culture, scientific and technical culture, artistic culture. Each of these elements at the cumulative level corresponds to an element of culture at the ordinary level. They are closely related and influence each other. At the translational level, interaction between the cumulative and everyday levels takes place, and cultural information is exchanged.

The American culturologist T. Eliot, depending on the degree of awareness of culture, singled out two levels in its vertical section: the highest and the lowest, understanding culture as a certain way of life, which can only be led by the elite - the "elite". The Spanish culturologist J. Ortega y Gasset in his works "The Revolt of the Masses", "Art in the Present and the Past", "Dehumanization of Art" put forward the concept mass society and mass culture. If elite culture is focused on a select, intellectual public, then mass culture is not oriented to the “average” level of development of mass consumers, often encouraging the primitive inclinations of people.

Mass culture- a form of culture, the works of which are standardized and distributed to the general public without regard to regional and religious differences.

Elite culture includes fine arts, classical music, and literature produced by professionals for the educated and upper class.

folk culture created by creators from the people, remains nameless, reflects the spiritual searches of the people, includes myths, fairy tales, proverbs, legends, songs and dances.

material culture represents the culture of labor and material production; culture of life; the culture of the topos (i.e. the place of residence); culture of attitude to one's own body; physical culture.

spiritual culture acts as a multi-layered formation and includes: intellectual culture; moral; artistic; legal; pedagogical; religious.

According to L.N. Kogan and other culturologists, there are types of cultures that cannot be attributed only to material or spiritual. They represent a "vertical section" of culture, penetrating its entire system. These are economic, political, ecological, aesthetic cultures. Within the framework of the culture of society, one can distinguish subcultures: systems of symbols, values, beliefs, patterns of behavior that distinguish this or that community or some social group from the culture of the majority of society. It is possible to single out Western, Eastern, national, professional, confessional religious subcultures.

According to the content and influence, culture is divided into progressive And reactionary. Such a division is quite legitimate, because culture, as a human-forming phenomenon, can educate a person not only moral, but also immoral. The structure of culture includes substantial elements that are objectified in its values ​​and norms, and functional elements that characterize the process of cultural activity itself, its various aspects and aspects. The substantive block that makes up the "body" of culture, its substantive basis, includes the values ​​of culture - its works of a given cultural era, as well as the norms of culture, its requirements for each member of society. This includes the norms of law, religion, morality, the norms of everyday behavior and communication of people. The functional block reveals the process of culture movement. It includes: traditions, rituals, customs, rituals, taboos that ensure the functioning of culture. In folk culture, these means were the main ones, because. it is non-institutional. Thus, the structure of culture is a complex, multifaceted formation. At the same time, all its elements interact with each other, forming a single system of such a universal phenomenon as culture appears before us.

The dominant features of each of the elements form the so-called "core" of culture, which acts as its fundamental principle expressed in science, art, philosophy, ethics, religion, law, economics, politics, mentality and way of life. Each culture has its own unique value core that embodies its chronotype, i.e. the specifics of its localization in the world (North, South, East, West, sea, mountain, plain, etc.) and stay in the stream world history. Thanks to the value core, the integrity of this culture, its unique appearance is ensured. Cultures maintain the continuity of existence by transforming their values. The condition for the existence of culture is its ability to optimally balance universal and specific values, which allows, on the one hand, to preserve its originality and originality, and on the other hand, to find an opportunity for interaction with other cultures.

Functions of culture. You should also pay attention to the main functions , which culture performs in the life of the human community. Let's consider some of them.

The most important - broadcast function(transfer) of social experience. It is often called the function of historical continuity, or information. It is no coincidence that culture is considered the social memory of mankind.

Another leading function is cognitive (gnoseological). A culture that concentrates the best social experience of many generations of people accumulates the richest knowledge about the world and thereby creates favorable opportunities for their development.

Regulatory (normative) function culture is connected, first of all, with the regulation of various aspects of social and personal activities of people. Culture, one way or another, influences the behavior of people and regulates their actions, actions and assessments.

The transformative function of culture(the development and transformation of the surrounding reality is a fundamental human need). Man immanently inherent in the desire to go beyond the limits of the given in the transformation and creativity.

The protective function of culture is a consequence of the need to maintain a certain balanced relationship between man and environment both natural and social. The expansion of the spheres of human activity inevitably entails the emergence of more and more new dangers, and this requires the culture to create adequate protection mechanisms (environmental protection, medicine, public order, technological advances, etc.). The need for one type of protection stimulates the emergence of others. For example, the extermination of agricultural pests damages the environment and requires funds. environmental protection. The threat of an ecological catastrophe now makes this function of culture a priority.

semiotic, or sign function - the most important in the system of culture. Representing a certain sign system, culture implies knowledge, possession of it. It is impossible to master the achievements of culture without studying the corresponding sign systems. So, the language (oral or written) is a means of communication between people, the literary language is the most important means of mastering the national culture. Specific languages ​​are needed for knowing the special world of music, painting, theater. Natural Sciences(physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology) also have their own sign systems.

valuable, or axiological function contributes to the formation of a person's well-defined needs and orientations. By their level and quality, they most often judge the level of culture of a person.

Humanistic function- the formation of the moral image of the individual (culture as a way of human socialization, a way of developing a person, his abilities, skills, his physical and spiritual qualities).

CHAPTER 3. TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES.

Typology of cultures- the doctrine of the specific differences between cultures, the main types of world culture. For the first time, the idea of ​​the existence of certain and independent "cultural-historical types" was proposed by a Russian thinker of the 19th century. N.Ya.Danilevsky. However, typological ideas about culture became widespread only in the 20th century. In general, three main principles for highlighting cultural differences can be distinguished: 1) geographical - the localization of cultures in geographic space; 2) chronological - the allocation of independent stages in historical development, i.e. localization in time; 3) national - the study of the distinctive features of culture throughout its historical development. All the rest follow from these three basic concepts.

The typology of cultures proposed by O. Spengler is that there are different types of cultures that have not historically changed, but only coexisted next to each other, remaining impenetrable to one another. Spengler identifies only eight cultures of equal maturity, covering the main parts of the planet: Egyptian, Indian, Babylonian, Chinese, Apollonian (antique), magical (Arabic), Mayan culture, Faustian culture (Western European). This approach to the typology of cultures is called the theory of "local civilizations".

We can also single out the theory of "evolutionary monism" (Hegel) - all countries are included in a single scheme of historical movement on the way from lower, undeveloped, to higher, developed forms. Hegel considered the Eastern world to be the lowest stage in the development of the spirit in the realization of freedom.

K. Jaspers creates the theory of "axial time" - the axis of world history is chronologically located between the 8th and 2nd centuries BC, when a sharp turn in the history of development takes place all the way from the West to Asia: the struggle of rational experience - Logos with myth, begins, basic concepts and categories are developed, the foundations of world religions are laid. At this time, an individualistic consciousness is formed, the development of rational experience. Those cultures where the transition from mythological consciousness to rational did not take place could not “step over” the axial time. Such cultures had an indirect impact on modern ones through the cultural traditions that have come down to us, literary and archaeological sites.

Domestic researchers, such as L.S. Vasiliev, M.K. Petrov, L.S. Sedov, considered this problem from the point of view of the East-West antithesis.

Despite the presence of many different approaches to the typology and periodization of culture, in modern cultural studies there are several real historical stages and forms of culture: archaic culture; pre-axial culture of ancient local civilizations; culture of East and West in the "axial time"; culture of East and West in the Christian era.

There can be many criteria or grounds for the typology of cultures. In cultural studies, there is no consensus on what to consider as types, forms, types, branches of culture.

Branches of culture should be called such sets of norms, rules and models of human behavior, which constitute a relatively closed area as part of the whole.

Types of culture it is necessary to name such sets of norms, rules and models of human behavior that constitute relatively closed areas, but are not parts of one whole.

Any national or ethnic culture we are obliged to classify as cultural types. The types of culture should include not only regional-ethnic formations, but also historical and economic ones.

Forms of culture refer to such sets of rules, norms and models of human behavior that cannot be considered completely autonomous entities; neither are they constituent parts of any whole. High or elite culture, folk culture and popular culture are called forms of culture because they are a special way of expressing artistic content.

Types of culture should be called such sets of rules, norms and behaviors that are varieties of more common culture. We will refer to the main types of culture:

A) the dominant (nationwide) culture;

B) rural and urban cultures;

C) ordinary and specialized culture.

Need a special conversation spiritual And material culture. They cannot be attributed to branches, forms, types or types of culture, since these phenomena combine all four classification features to varying degrees. It is more correct to consider spiritual and material culture as combined, or complex, formations, standing aside from the general conceptual scheme.

The proposed typology of cultures is not necessarily the ultimate truth. It is very approximate and not strict. Nevertheless, it has undoubted advantages: logical validity and consistency.

CHAPTER 4. CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION.

WITH An important place in the theory of culture is occupied by the question of the relationship between the concepts of culture and civilization. The concept of "civilization" appeared in antiquity to reflect the qualitative difference between the ancient Roman society and the barbarian environment, but, as the French linguist E. Benveniste established, in European languages the word civilization took root in the period from 1757 to 1772. It was closely associated with a new way of life, the essence of which was urbanization and the growing role of material and technical culture. It was then that the still relevant understanding of civilization as a certain form of the state of culture, an interethnic cultural and historical community of people with mutual language, political independence and established, developed forms of social organization. However, a unified view of the relationship between the concepts of culture and civilization has not yet been developed. Interpretations vary from their complete identification to categorical opposition. Philosophers of the Enlightenment, as a rule, insisted on the inextricable positive connection of these concepts: only high culture gives rise to civilization, and civilization, respectively, is an indicator of cultural development and viability. The only exception was, perhaps, only Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The call put forward by him is well known: “Back to nature!”. Rousseau, not only in civilization, but also in culture itself, found a lot of negative, distorting the nature of man. He contrasted the civilized man of the 18th century with the "Natural Man", who lives in harmony with the world and with himself. Rousseau's ideas found supporters among the romantics. At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. the contradictions that existed between culture and civilization became obvious to many: culture easily turns into its opposite if the material, mass, quantitative principle begins to prevail in it.

For the German cultural philosopher O. Spengler, the entry into the phase of civilization predetermines the death of a culture that is unable to develop harmoniously in the conditions of the mechanistic and artificial nature of civilization. The American ethnographer R. Redfield believed that culture and civilization are completely independent spheres. human being: culture is an integral part of the life of all, even the smallest and most undeveloped communities of people, the simplest "folk communities", and civilization is the sum of the acquired skills of people living in very complex and changing societies.

The ratio of these concepts in cultural studies is the cornerstone. Both of these concepts have multiple meanings. In the interpretation of their relationship, there are three main trends: identification, opposition and partial interpenetration. The essence of each of these trends is determined by the interpretation of the content of these concepts. In scientific everyday life there is a rather large number of definitions of culture as a set of values, sometimes material and spiritual (Freud, Tylor), and sometimes only spiritual (Berdyaev, Spengler). The concept of civilization arose in the 18th century and its use is associated with the name of Holbach. The word "civilization" is of French origin, but originates from the Latin root civilis - civil, state. There are a number of definitions of the concept of civilization. Of these, the following can be cited: civilization is a synonym for culture; level and degree of social development; the era following barbarism; a period of degradation and decline of culture; the degree of domination of man and society over nature through the tools of labor and means of production; a form of social organization and orderliness of the world, based on the priority of the development of new technologies. There is a certain logic in trying to equate culture and civilization. They are due to similarities, which include:

The social nature of their origin. Neither culture nor civilization can exist outside of the human principle. These characteristics are alien to virgin nature.

Civilization and culture are the result of human activity and, in fact, are an artificial human habitat, in other words, second nature.

Civilization and culture is the result of satisfying human needs, but in one case predominantly material and in the other - spiritual.

Finally, civilization and culture are different aspects of social life. They cannot be separated without causing damage, preparation is possible only at a theoretical level.

Z. Freud stood on the position of identifying culture and civilization, who believed that both distinguish a person from an animal.

O. Spengler, N. Berdyaev, T. Marcuse and other thinkers insisted on the position of opposition. Spengler bred these concepts purely chronologically, culture for him is replaced by civilization, which leads it to decline and degradation. “Civilization is a totality of extremely external and extremely artificial states… civilization is completion” 1 .

N. Berdyaev believed that almost throughout its existence, culture and civilization develop synchronously, with the exception of the source, which made it possible for the philosopher to draw a conclusion about the primacy of civilization, because. the satisfaction of material needs anticipated the satisfaction of spiritual ones. N. Berdyaev reveals, first of all, the differences, emphasizes the special features of both culture and civilization. In his opinion, the spiritual, individual, qualitative, aesthetic, expressive, aristocratic, stably stable, sometimes conservative principle is emphasized in culture, and the material, social-collective, quantitative, replicated, publicly accessible, democratic, pragmatic-utilitarian, dynamic- progressive. Berdyaev notes that the origin of civilization is mundane, it was born in the struggle with nature outside the temples and cult.

The position of opposing the content essence of civilization and culture is also characteristic of T. Marcuse, who believed that civilization is a hard, cold, everyday reality, and culture is an eternal holiday. Marcuse wrote: "The spiritual labor of culture is opposed to the material labor of civilization, as the weekday is opposed to the day off, work is opposed to leisure, the realm of necessity is the realm of freedom" 1 . Thus, according to Marcuse, civilization is everyday routine, a hard necessity, and culture is an eternal holiday, a kind of ideal, sometimes a utopia. But, in essence, culture as a spiritual phenomenon is not only an illusion, but also a reality. Spengler, Berdyaev, Marcuse, putting civilization in opposition to culture as antipodal concepts, nevertheless understood that they are interdependent and interdependent.

Thus, civilization and culture coexist together and are the result of human activity to transform nature and man. Civilization allows a person to solve the issue of social organization and orderliness of the surrounding world, and culture - spiritual and value orientation in it. Russian writer M. Prishvin noted that civilization is the power of things, and culture is the connection of people. For Prishvin, culture is a union of creative individuals, the antithesis of a civilization based on a standard. Both - both culture and civilization - coexist in his view in parallel and consist of different series of values. The first includes "personality - society - creativity - culture", and the second - "reproduction - state - production - civilization" 2 .

The main direction of the influence of culture on civilization is carried out through its humanization and the introduction of awareness of the creative aspect into human activity. Civilization, with its pragmatic attitudes, often crowds culture, compresses its spiritual space. In different historical periods, culture and civilization occupied different proportions in society. In the 20th century, there is a noticeable tendency to increase the space of civilization in comparison with culture. Currently, the question of the search for real mechanisms, their mutual fruitful coexistence, is relevant.

CHAPTER 5. ORIGINALITY OF CULTUROLOGY AS A COMPLEX SCIENCE.

Culturology, a complex science that studies all aspects of the functioning of culture, from the causes of origin to various forms of historical self-expression, has become one of the most significant and rapidly developing in Lately humanitarian disciplines. This, of course, has its own, quite obvious reasons. The subject of culturology is culture, and the clearly marked interest in the phenomenon of culture is easily explained by certain circumstances. Let's try to describe some of them:

1. Modern civilization is rapidly transforming the environment, social institutions, and everyday life. In this regard, culture attracts attention as an inexhaustible source of social innovation. Hence the desire to reveal the potential of culture, its internal reserves, to find opportunities for its activation. Considering culture as a means of human self-realization, one can identify new inexhaustible impulses that can influence historical process, on the person himself.

2. The question of the relationship between the concepts of culture and society, culture and history is also relevant. What impact does the cultural process have on social dynamics? What will the movement of history bring to culture? In the past, the social cycle was much shorter than the cultural one. When a person was born, he found a certain structure of cultural values. It has not changed for centuries. In the 20th century, the situation changed dramatically. Now, during one human life, several cultural cycles pass, which puts a person in an extremely difficult position for him. Everything changes so quickly that a person does not have time to comprehend and appreciate certain innovations and finds himself in a state of loss and uncertainty. In this regard, it is of particular importance to identify the most significant features of the cultural practice of past eras in order to avoid moments of primitivization of modern culture.

All of the above is far from exhausting the reasons explaining the rapid development of cultural studies in our days.

Gradually, the terminological apparatus of this science, consisting of the categories of cultural studies, is also being formed. The categories of culturology include the most essential concepts of patterns in the development of culture as a system, reflect the essential properties of culture. On the basis of the categories of cultural studies, the phenomena of culture are being studied.

The main components of cultural studies are the philosophy of culture and the history of culture, areas of humanitarian knowledge that began to exist quite a long time ago. Merged together, they formed the basis of cultural studies. In cultural studies, historical facts are subjected to philosophical analysis and generalization. Depending on the aspect on which the main attention is focused, various cultural theories and schools are created. Philosophy of culture is a branch of cultural studies that studies the concepts of the origin and functioning of culture. The history of culture is a branch of cultural studies that studies the specific features of cultures of various cultural and historical stages.

Newer sections of cultural studies, the main parameters of which are still being formed, are culture morphology And theory of culture.

Culture becomes the object of close attention of researchers in the 18th century, the century of the Enlightenment.

The German philosopher Herder considered the human mind not as an innate reality, but as a result of education and comprehension of cultural images. By gaining reason, according to Herder, a person becomes the son of God, the king of the earth. He considered animals as slaves of nature, and in people he saw her first freedmen.

For Kant, culture is a tool for preparing a person for the implementation of moral duty, a path from the natural world to the realm of freedom. According to Kant, culture characterizes only the subject, and not real world. Its carrier is an educated and morally developed person.

According to F. Schiller, culture consists in reconciling the physical and moral nature of a person: “Culture must do justice to both - not only to one rational impulse of a person as opposed to the sensual, but also to the latter as opposed to the first. Thus, the task of culture is twofold: firstly, the protection of sensibility from the seizure of freedom, and secondly, the protection of the individual from the power of feelings. The first it achieves by the development of the faculty of feeling, and the second by the development of the mind.”

Among Schiller's younger contemporaries, F.V. Schelling, brothers A.V. and F. Schlegel etc. - the aesthetic significance of culture comes to the fore. Its main content proclaims the artistic activity of people, as a means of divine overcoming in them of the animal, natural principle. aesthetic views Schelling are most fully set out in his book "Philosophy of Art" (1802 - 1803), where the desire to show the priority of artistic creativity over all other types of creative activity man, to place art above both morality and science. In a somewhat simplified way, culture was reduced by Schelling and other romantics to art, first of all, to poetry. To a reasonable and moral person, they, to a certain extent, opposed the power of a human artist, a human creator.)

In the works of G.F.V. Hegel, the main types of culture (art, law, religion, philosophy) are represented by the stages of development of the "world mind". Hegel creates a universal scheme for the development of the "world mind", according to which, any culture embodies a certain stage of its self-expression. The “world mind” is also manifested in people. Originally in the form of language, speech. The spiritual development of the individual reproduces the stages of self-knowledge of the “world mind”, starting with “baby talk” and ending with “absolute knowledge”, i.e. knowledge of those forms and laws that govern from within the entire process of the spiritual development of mankind. From Hegel's point of view, the development of world culture reveals such integrity and logic that cannot be explained by the sum of the efforts of individual individuals. The essence of culture, according to Hegel, is manifested not in overcoming the biological principles in man and not in creative fantasy. prominent personalities, but in the spiritual familiarization of the individual with the "world mind", subjugating both nature and history. “The absolute value of culture lies in the development of the universality of thought,” wrote Hegel.

If we proceed from Hegel's culturological scheme, then at present humanity is somewhere halfway between its childhood age of ignorance and the final mastery of the “absolute idea”, “absolute knowledge”, which also determines its “absolute culture”. Despite the fact that Hegel did not devote a single work directly to culture, his views can be regarded as one of the first holistic and fairly convincing precultural concepts. Hegel not only discovered the general patterns of the development of world culture, but also managed to fix them in the logic of concepts. In his works Phenomenology of Spirit, Philosophy of History, Aesthetics, Philosophy of Law, Philosophy of Religion, he essentially analyzed the entire path of development of world culture. No other thinker has done this before him. However, Hegel's philosophy of culture is not cultural studies. In the works of Hegel, culture does not yet appear as the main subject of study. Hegel actually replaces the concept of culture with the concept of the history of the self-disclosure of the "world mind".

Of particular interest to specialists in the field of philology and linguistics are the views of Hegel's contemporary - the German aesthetician, linguist and philosopher W. von Humboldt, who used the Hegelian concept of "spirit" in relation to the culture of individual peoples. He considered each culture as a unique spiritual whole, the specificity of which is expressed mainly in language. Emphasizing the creative nature of language as a form of expression national spirit, Humboldt studied it in close connection with the cultural life of the people. Humboldt's works, to a certain extent, marked the transition from a predominantly philosophical understanding of culture (Voltaire, Rousseau, Kant, Schiller, Schelling, Hegel) to its more substantive study.

Nevertheless, works adequate to the modern idea of ​​cultural studies appear only in the 2nd half. XIX century. One of these can rightfully be considered the book of the Englishman E. B. Tylor "Primitive Culture" (1871) . Arguing that "the science of culture is the science of reforms," ​​he viewed culture as a process of continuous progressive development. Tylor gives one of the first definitions of culture of a generalizing nature, which is considered to this day one of the most objective: “Culture or civilization in a broad, ethnographic sense is composed in its whole of knowledge, beliefs, art, morality, laws, customs and some other abilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

In 1869 and 1872 two works appear that are now invariably included among the most significant for the course of cultural studies. This is "Russia and Europe" by the Russian researcher N.Ya. Danilevsky and "The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music" by the German philosopher F. Nietzsche. Here all the signs of a true cultural study are already present: the material on the history of culture is philosophically interpreted and accompanied by calculations of a general theoretical order. And most importantly, culture and its forms are the main object of consideration. The views of Danilevsky and Nietzsche on culture will be discussed in the next chapter. It should only be noted that the fact of the emergence of cultural studies did not yet mean the emergence of science itself. Neither Danilevsky nor Nietzsche called themselves culturologists, and they hardly suspected that they were becoming the forefathers of a new science. Danilevsky perceived himself more as a historian, although he was a biologist by education, and Nietzsche quite naturally acted as a philosopher.

In the future, the study of problems related to culture becomes more and more familiar. Scientists are finding more and more aspects in this truly limitless phenomenon. V. Dilthey is the initiator of the use of hermeneutics to understand the images of culture. He believes that the method of explanation is not suitable for the study of phenomena associated with human creativity, and should be replaced by a more subtle and psychological method of understanding. Hermeneutics was originally a method of classical philology, which made it possible to meaningfully interpret and translate monuments of ancient literature. Dilthey, on the other hand, proposes using this method to study cultural epochs, recreating their psychological structure. “We explain nature,” Dilthey believed, “and we understand spiritual life (i.e. culture).” Hermeneutical developments became the basis of the "spiritual-historical school" in cultural studies.

G. Simmel pays special attention to the conflict moments in the culture of the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, trying to give them a deep objective interpretation. The subject of history, he considers the evolution of cultural forms, which is carried out in a certain direction. At the beginning of the twentieth century, from the point of view of the philosopher, there is a sharp deviation of the line of development of culture from the previous paths. In The Conflict of Modern Culture (1918), Simmel explains the desire to destroy all old forms of culture with new ones, characteristic of this historical period, by the fact that in recent decades humanity lives without any unifying idea, as it was until the middle of the 19th century. Many new ideas arise, but they are so fragmented and incompletely expressed that they cannot meet an adequate response in life itself, they cannot rally society around the idea of ​​culture. “Life in its immediacy seeks to embody itself in phenomena, but due to their imperfection, it reveals a struggle against any form,” Simmel writes, substantiating his vision of the cause of crisis phenomena in culture. Perhaps the philosopher managed to discover one of the most significant indicators of the cultural crisis as such: namely, the absence of a global socially important idea capable of uniting all cultural processes.

Simmel's point of view is also extremely interesting because it was expressed precisely at the time when culturology was finally turning into an independent science. The feeling of crisis, characteristic of the assessment of the state of culture by various thinkers, to a certain extent, predetermined the completion of the formation of the science of culture. The formation of cultural studies was completed under the influence of certain events in European culture. They testified to a profound turning point in history, which had not been equaled in previous centuries. First World War and revolutions in Russia, Germany, Hungary, a new type of organization of people's lives, due to the industrial revolution, the growth of man's power over nature and the disastrous consequences of this growth for nature, the birth of an impersonal "man of the masses" - all this obliged us to take a different look at the character and role European culture. Many scientists, as well as Simmel, considered her situation to be extremely deplorable and no longer considered European culture as a kind of cultural standard, they spoke of a crisis and the collapse of its foundations.

At the end of 1915, the Russian philosopher L.M. Lopatin prophetically said that modern world is experiencing a huge historical catastrophe - so terrible, so bloody, so fraught with the most unexpected prospects, that her mind goes numb and her head spins... peoples perish and rise, something else also happens... Old ideals collapse, former hopes and persistent expectations fade... And most importantly, our very faith in modern culture is irreparably and deeply wavering: because of its terrible animal face that we involuntarily turned away from him with disgust and bewilderment. And the persistent question is raised: what, in fact, is this culture? What is its moral, even just life value?

Subsequent events in Europe and in the world showed that Lopatin did not in the least exaggerate the significance of crisis phenomena in culture. It became obvious that a person and culture itself can develop in a completely different way than it once seemed to the figures of the Enlightenment and the humanists of the Renaissance, that the ideal of a self-developing creative personality in the 20th century looked like a mere utopia. It turned out that even educated people are capable of acts of vandalism and mass destruction of their own kind. A paradoxical situation developed: historical development continued, while cultural development slowed down, seemed to reverse, reviving in man the ancient instincts of destruction and aggression. This situation could not be explained on the basis of traditional ideas about culture, according to which it is a process of organizing and ordering history itself.

Consequently, culturology as a worldview science finally strengthened its position as a result of the awareness of the crisis state of culture of the early twentieth century by the general public, just as the boom that culturology is now experiencing is explained by the crisis of the state of culture of its end.

The attention of the outstanding German sociologist Max Weber was attracted by the problems of religion and culture. Within the framework of historical sociology, Weber made a grandiose attempt to study the role of the Protestant ethic in the genesis of Western European capitalism. His work "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" (1904-1905) subsequently caused a whole series of studies related to the sociological study of the "economic role" of world religions.

Another representative of the Weber family, Alfred, analyzed crisis phenomena in culture, insisting on the integrity of world culture, as opposed to the popular ideas of cyclists, while recognizing the existence of the deepest general crisis of European culture in the first half of the 20th century.

The feeling of discomfort and uncertainty was so strong that the first volume of O. Spengler's book "The Decline of Europe" published in 1918 was met with unprecedented interest. The book was read and discussed not only by specialists: philosophers, historians, sociologists, anthropologists, etc., but by all educated people. It has become an integral part of many university programs. And this despite significant criticism of many of the provisions expressed by Spengler. The question of the reasons for such interest in this work is legitimate. After all, Spengler literally repeated some of the points written for half a century before the work Danilevsky "Russia and Europe", which was noticed only by a narrow circle of professionals.

Undoubtedly, it was a cultural and historical situation. The very name "The Decline of Europe" sounded as relevant as possible. Most of Spengler's contemporaries really felt that they were living in a world of the collapse of old habitual cultural norms, and inevitably posed the question whether this meant the end of European civilization in general, or was it the beginning of the next round in its development. Reading Spengler, people tried to find the answer to the painful question about the fate of culture.

The above statements by Simmel and Lopatin about the general cultural situation of the early twentieth century quite accurately reflect the essence of the issue, but for the consciousness of the layman, all the subtleties indicated by both philosophers may not have been so obvious. But even at the philistine level, the culture of that time carried such a number of innovations that it was extremely difficult to comprehend them and develop a certain attitude towards them. And outside of cultural attitudes, a person cannot exist safely. Recall that the beginning of the century was a time of widespread and rapid introduction of electricity into life, and the radio, telephone, and telegraph associated with it. Gramophone recording and cinematography appear. A car from a curiosity becomes commonplace. Aircraft (airplanes and airships) are created. Much of what seemed like fantasy and a dream becomes commonplace, but does not bring much happiness to humanity. There is also a radical breakdown of the usual social structures.

The painful perception by a person of the whole complex of significant changes was clearly manifested in artistic creativity. The culture of the avant-garde swept away all the attitudes of the past, some of which had existed uncontested for more than one millennium. First of all, this is the principle of memesis, or life-imitation, which has been considered unshakable for literature and fine arts since the time of Aristotle. Visitors to art exhibitions, accustomed to contemplating recognizable images of contemporaries or familiar images of nature, felt extremely insecure in front of the canvases of the cubists or abstractionists. Given the fact that until now the tastes of most people are inclined towards realistic art, it is easy to imagine what bewilderment those who first came into contact with avant-garde techniques experienced. More about the foundations of modernist art will be discussed in the chapter on new trends in the culture of the twentieth century. In the context of this chapter, the mention of abstractionism is necessary as another argument in favor of confirming the sharp breakdown of traditional forms of culture, characteristic of the time of the formation of cultural studies.

Many scientists involved in various aspects of the humanities considered it a matter of honor to take part in the creation of a general theory of culture, reflecting the multidimensionality and complexity of this concept. The term "culturology" did not appear immediately. It was introduced around the 40s. at the initiative of the American cultural researcher and anthropologist L.E. White. In the works “The Science of Culture” (1949), “The Evolution of Culture” (1959). “The Concept of Culture” (1973) and others. White argued that cultural studies is a qualitatively higher level of human comprehension than other social sciences, and predicted a great future for it. He considered culture as a kind of integral system of material and spiritual elements, and formulated the general law of the development of culture with almost mathematical precision: “Culture moves forward as the amount of harnessed energy per capita increases, or as efficiency or economy increases. in energy controls, or both.” It so happened that by the time White introduced the name, science itself was already actively functioning.

At the same time, one cannot ignore the fact that cultural studies to this day remains the most controversial and diverse science. To create a science of culture, equal in logic, internal unity, fundamentality to other humanities, turned out to be an extremely difficult task: the object of study itself is too multifaceted. This explains the variety of interpretations of its specificity and constituent components.

“Culturology is focused on the knowledge of the common that connects various forms of cultural existence of people ... Historical and theoretical ways consideration of the forms of cultural existence of a person are in cultural studies in unity. Based on this understanding, culturology can be considered as knowledge about past and modern culture, its structure and functions, development prospects, ”writes the Russian culturologist S.Ya. Levit in the article“ Culturology as an integrative field of knowledge ”, and his position seems to be quite reasonable which fully reflects the essence of this most interesting science.

Empirical methods in cultural studies – are used at the initial level of research, are based on the collection and description of factual material within the framework of humanitarian cultural studies.
historical method- is aimed at studying how this culture arose, what stages of development it went through and what it became in its mature form.
Structural-functional method - consists in decomposing the object under study into its constituent parts and identifying the internal connection, conditionality, the relationship between them, as well as determining their functions.
Semiotic method - considers culture as a sign system, i.e. using semiotics.
Biographical method - involves an analysis of the life path of a cultural figure for a better understanding of his inner world, which reflects the system of cultural values ​​of his time.
Modeling model - associated with the creation of a model of a certain period in the development of culture.
Psychologicalmethod - involves the ability to find out through the analysis of memoirs, chronicles, myths, annals, epistolary heritage, treatises, the most typical reactions of people of a particular culture to the most significant phenomena for them: famine, wars, epidemics. Such reactions are manifested both in the form of social feelings and mentality in general. The use of the psychological method makes it possible, through understanding the nature of a particular culture, to perceive the motivation, the logic of cultural actions.
Diachronic method - involves the clarification of the chronological, that is, the temporal sequence of changes, the appearance and course of a particular cultural phenomenon.
The synchronous method consists in the analysis of changes in the same phenomenon on different stages unified cultural process. In addition to the above, the synchronic method can also be understood as a cumulative analysis of two or more cultures over a certain period of their development, taking into account existing connections and possible contradictions.

History of world and public culture(this is the foundation, the basis of science) - this is knowledge about achievements in science, art, about the development of religious thought, the history of culture explores the real process of continuity of cultures of different eras and peoples.
History of cultural theoriesis a story about the process of formation and development of cultural thought, i.e. history of the study of culture.
The theory of culture is the main complex of scientific concepts in the field of culture, the study of the main theoretical problems of cultural studies.
Sociology of culture - explores the process of functioning of culture in society, the characteristics and values ​​of various social groups, the specifics of lifestyle and spiritual interests, explores various forms of deviant behavior common in society.
Cultural anthropology- represents a section related to the peculiarities of the interaction of culture and man, culture and personality.
Applied Cultural Studies- cultural studies, focused on practical actions in the field of culture. We are talking about social work, about activities to preserve the values ​​of culture and assist in the transfer of spiritual experience to other generations.

Question 2. The concept of culture, its essence, structure and functions.
culture, understood in a broad sense, embraces the totality of social values ​​that create a collective portrait of the identity of each particular society.
In a broad sense, the concept "culture"(lat. "cultura") is used asopposition to "nature", "nature"(lat. "natura"). “Culture is everything that is not nature”, i.e. the totality of material and ideal objects, social achievements, thanks to which a person stands out from nature.
In a narrow sense, culture – it is synonymous with art, i.e. a special sphere of human activity associated with the artistic and figurative understanding of the world in the form of literature, architecture, sculpture, painting, graphics, music, dance, theater, cinema, etc.
Culture is the link between society and nature. The basis of this connection is a person as a subject of activity, cognition, communication, experience, etc.
Speaking of structure culture, it is necessary to designate two spheres of its existence -material and spiritual. Such manifestations of culture are associated with two spheres of human activity: material and spiritual. In them, on the one hand, there is an expression of human forces, on the other hand, their formation and improvement.
Culturologists distinguish the following functions cultures:

Basic (human)Man lives not in nature, but in culture. In it, he recognizes himself. There are also moments of world understanding, formation, education and sociologization of a person. Otherwise, it is also called a transforming function, since the development and transformation of the surrounding reality is a fundamental need for a person.
informative - provides historical continuity and the transfer of social experience.
Cognitive (epistemological) - aimed at ensuring human knowledge of the world around. It is expressed in science, in scientific research, aimed at systematization of knowledge and disclosure of the laws of development of nature and society, and at the knowledge of man himself.
Communicative- provides the process of information exchange using signs and sign systems.
Regulatory (regulatory or protective function) - is a consequence of the need to maintain a certain balanced relationship between man and the environment, both natural and social.
value (axiological) - culture shows the significance or value of what is valuable in one culture, in another it is not.
Spiritual and moral- the educational role of culture.

Question 3. Evolution of the understanding of the term "culture": from antiquity to the present.
Initially, the concept of culture (cultura) comes into use as a word of Latin origin. It was used inThe Roman Empire in the understanding of processing, cultivating the land, cultivating; inhabit, inhabit the earth.
Those. culture meant the arrangement of a person in a certain territory, cultivation, cultivation of the land. This is where the term comes from. agriculture - agriculture, tillage. Thus, the concept of culture is directly associated with such an important concept for the life of society as agriculture (as a purposeful human activity). In Latin, the harbinger of culture is the term culture - “care, care for a deity, cult (veneration)”.
Thus, the most ancient complex of the concept of "Culture" reflects three facets of a single meaning and represents a holistic formula: arrangement of the place where a person lives, cultivation of the land, veneration of the gods.
For the first time in a figurative sense, the concept of culture was used in his work by the outstanding Roman politician, orator and philosopher Mark Tullius. Cicero (106-43 BC), calling philosophy "the culture of the soul."
The term culture began to be perceived somewhat differently during the heyday of the Christian worldview in Europe. If we talk about the main difference in the worldview and science of that period, then from the cosmocentrism inherent in antiquity, European thought comes to the complete worship of God, worship of God. A person, his desires, his body, his needs become insignificant, only the spirit remains, which is eternal, the salvation of which must be taken care of, and in the Christian world another meaning of culture comes to the fore -reverence, boundless and undivided reverence for God.It was the veneration of the triune God that became in Christianity the basis of the spiritual development of man. Thus, in the Middle Ages, the religious cult became the main thing in the formation of man.
As for secular culture, some Christian theologians interpret it as a preparation for religious enlightenment, while others interpret it as a path of error leading away from the truth in the person of God.
rebirth became the second stage on the way to the justification and definition of the concept of culture. The very attitude towards a person as a separate entity is changing. creative unit, personality. An anthropocentric picture of the world is being formed. In the Renaissance there is a constant Delight human creativity, new breakthroughs in art, literature, painting, architecture. The study of the culture of ideology continued in the direction of identifying the boundaries between the innate and acquired in a person.
In the Age of Enlightenment, it was believed that culture was not just a striving for freedom or mercy originally inherent in a person, but an activity illuminated by the light of reason. And in this new model of the Enlightenment project, reason, rationalism dominates, and it is on this foundation that the building of European culture is erected. Before this period, the word "culture" was used only in phrases, denoting the function of something, but in contrast to thisGerman enlighteners began to talk about culture in general or about culture as such.
So, in the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of "culture" meansactive transformation of the world by man. Unlike Cicero, the Enlighteners classify as culture not only the spiritual, but also the material occupations of people. This is the improvement of people's lives with the help of agriculture, crafts, and various techniques. But above allculture is the spiritual perfection of the human race and individuals, the instrument of which is the mind.
Over the centuries, the understanding of culture has varied, evolved, and that certain thinkers put their meaning into a given word in a certain era.
At the moment, culture is a special spiritual experience of human communities, accumulated and transmitted from generation to generation, the content of which is the value meanings of things, forms, norms, and ideals, relationships and actions, feelings, intentions, expressed in specific signs and sign systems. - languages ​​of culture.

Question 4. Enlightenment theories of culture of the 18th century (J.-G. Herder, J.-J. Rousseau, J. Vico)
In the Age of Enlightenment there are treatises and essays devoted to the study of culture as whole world created by man. Among those who laid the foundations for the study of culture as a holistic phenomenon areJ. Vico (1668-1744) and German thinker I. Herder (1744-1803). The fact is that before them the word "culture" was used only in phrases, denoting the function of something. In contrast, the German enlighteners, in particular I. Herder, leadtalk about culture in generalor about culture as such. According to Herder, highthe purpose of man is in the development of two universal principles - Reason and Humanity.For this, enlightenment and education, overcoming ignorance, serve. To investigate the root cause, the spirit of humanity, is the real task of the historian.The highest humanity is manifested in religion. Therefore, reason, humanity and religion are the three most important values ​​of culture.
J. Vico- historian and philosopher, doctor of law and rhetoric of the University of Naples in his main work"Foundations of the New Science of the General Nature of Nations» puts forward ideas about the cultural unity and diversity of the world, the dynamics of the cyclical development of culture and the change of eras.In his statements, he relies on the ancient ideas of the Egyptians, according to which they divided the time that passed before them into three main periods: the age of the gods, the age of heroes and the age of people, and he takes these views as the basis of the universal history that he intends to create. Historical evolution, according to Vico, is formed and replaced by different eras or "ages".Each of the eras differs only in the inherent features of art and morality, law and power, myths and religion, but the cycle of cycles reflects the infinity of human development.. Throughout the work, Vico consistently illustrates the coincidence of phenomena and causes, finds analogies in the development of human history and culture.
Over the course of time, epochs succeed each other, and Vico is talking only about the endless evolution of history. Speaking about the change of cycles in history and culture, Viko draws attention to the emergingat the end of the cycle, barbarism into which all nations fall.Barbarism, from his point of view, is regarded as an integral period in the progressive development of mankind. He divides this phenomenon into two types -natural barbarism, the story begins with him; the second - more refined and aggressive is inherent in historical development in subsequent cycles, people of a higher level of culture, the cruelty of this barbarism is distinguished by more skillful and secret means. (We can draw parallels with fascism).
Such ideas of Vico formed the basis of the future cultural studies, cultural anthropology.
J.J. Rousseau created his own "anti-culture concept". In his treatise "Reasoning. Did the revival of science and arts contribute to the improvement of morals?" he says that everything beautiful in a person comes out of the bosom of nature and deteriorates in it when he enters society.

Question 5. Formation of cultural studies as a science. Theory of L. White.
Beginning with the European Enlightenment, gradually, but steadily, an interest in culture as an integral social and anthropological reality is being formed. Subsequently, researchers of history, culturologists, will call this a culture-centric picture of the world.
culture in all its diversity and richness, it is in the center of attention of philosophers, anthropologists, as well as writers, artists, politicians.
If we look at different cultures and traditions, including in the temporal plane, we will see that every nation has an economic way of life, creates tools of labor, all social life is regulated by the rule of law, all cultures develop, are at different stages of development and progress. He begins to move away from the positions of Eurocentrism and realize the significance and uniqueness of each culture, whichall cultures are equal, equal in rights, there are no worthy or contemptible cultures, they are all original, this diversity is the main wealth of the cultural life of the world. Such fields of science as cultural anthropology, ethnography and sociology appear. The term culturology appears in the work of the English anthropologist E. Tylor (1832-1917), "Primitive Culture", he substantiates the concept of culture, defines regular connections between cultural phenomena, develops methods for classifying the stages of cultural development, compiles an ethnographic and anthropological description of the cultures of more than 400 peoples and ethnic groups of different countries.
Anthropologist Leslie White (1900-1975) devoted his works to the justification of cultural studies as a science; in 1949 he issues treatise"Science of culture", in which he proposes to name the industry humanities cultural studies. It was he who gave worthy arguments in favor of the fact that this science should stand out from the complex of humanitarian knowledge about culture into a separate discipline. This allows us to consider him the founder of culturologists. L. White considered culture as a symbolic reality. A person has a unique ability to give objects and phenomena around him a certain meaning, to endow them with meaning, to create symbols. It is this ability to symbolize, according to White, that creates the world of culture.These are values, ideas, faith, customs, works of art, etc., which are created by man and endowed with a certain meaning, outside this circle, objects lose their value, turn into material - matter, clay, wood, nothing more.The symbol is the starting point for understanding human behavior and culture.
White distinguishes 3 kinds of symbols: ideas, relations, external actions, material objects.All these types are related to culture and express a person's ability to symbolize. Culture is not just objects, without a human thought process, without its ability to evaluate and symbolize, it is a void, but endowed with symbols and meanings, this environment turns into a human habitat, and in turn contributes to the value understanding of human existence, helps a person adapt to the world around him . Thus,White considers k-ru as an integral system, divided into three interrelated areas:

technological- equipment, means of protection, transport, materials for building a dwelling, this is the provision of human interaction with nature
social - relations between people in all spheres of society, it determines the development of a person's social environment
spiritual sphere. Knowledge, faith, customs, myths, folklore, religion, mythology, philosophy, art, morality, etc. develop on this basis. This creates the spiritual world of man.

Question 6. Typology of culture: ethnic, national, world, regional culture.
Typology means a certain classification of phenomena according to the generality of any signs. The type of culture can be understood as a commonality of features, characteristics, manifestations that distinguishes these cultures (culture) from others, or the fixation of certain, qualitatively homogeneous stages in the development of culture.Typology of culture is knowledge, understanding, description, classification of manifestations of culture according to some principle..
Any typological scheme is based on the general idea that the history of mankind includes two main periods:archaic (primitive) and civilizational.
It is worth distinguishing between the concepts of typology of cultures - this is a method of cultural and historical analysis, and the typology of cultures is a system of selected typical models of cultures, the result of applying the method.
In the typology, the following types of culture are distinguished:

ethnic culture- the culture of a certain ethnic group (social community of people), the creative form of its life activity for the reproduction and renewal of being. Ethnic culture is based onethnic community: she originally biological., the oldest date back to prehistoric times. They are based oncommon hereditary psychophysiological features of people, connected by the unity of origin, and in the early stages and a certain area of ​​\u200b\u200bdwelling.Ethnic culture is a set of cultural features related mainly to everyday life, everyday culture.It has a core and a periphery. ethnic cultureincludes tools, customs, customs, values, buildings, clothing, food, means of transportation, housing, knowledge, beliefs, folk arts. Formationethnic culture going on in progress :

synthesis of primary factors: language, development of the territory, location, climatic conditions, features of housekeeping and life;

synthesis of secondary generative factors: the system of interpersonal communication, the evolution of cities, the predominance of a particular religion; the formation of a certain economic and cultural type in the economy; creation of an education system, ideology, propaganda; influence of political factors;
psychological characteristics, stereotypes of behavior, habits, mental attitudes; external interactions with other ethnic groups within the nation-state and beyond.

national culture unites people living in large areas and not necessarily connected by consanguinity. Compulsory condition the emergence of national culture, experts consider a new type of social communication,associated with the invention of writing, with the moment of birth literary language and national literature.It is thanks to writing that the ideas necessary for national unification gain popularity among the literate part of the population. The concept of national culture cannot be defined outside the existence of state structures in this culture. So nations can bemonoethnic and polyethnic. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "nation" and "people".Nation - a territorial, economic and linguistic association of people, having a social structure and political organization. National culture includes, along with traditional household, professional and everyday, also specialized areas of culture. Ethnic cultures are part of the national culture.

World - it is a synthesis of the best achievements of all national cultures of the peoples inhabiting our planet.
Regional culture - Regional culture is a variant of a national culture and at the same time an independent phenomenon that has its own patterns of development and the logic of historical existence.It is distinguished by the presence of its own set of functions, the production of a specific system of social relations and its own type of personality, the ability to influence the national culture as a whole.Behind the differentiation of concepts lies the understanding that there are forms and mechanisms that turn the culture of the region into a regional culture. On the other hand, this allows us to include the concept of regional culture in the typological range of historical and cultural phenomena.

Question 7. Elite and mass culture. Concepts of mass culture in cultural studies.
Elite (high) culture created and consumed by the privileged part of society - the elite(from fr. Elite- the best choice, favorites),or by her order by professional creators.The elite is the most spiritually capable part of society.High culture includes fine arts, classical music and literature. It is difficult for an unprepared person to understand. The circle of consumers of high culture is a highly educated part of society (critics, literary critics, theatergoers, artists, writers, musicians). This circle widens as the level of education of the population increases.Secular art and salon music are considered varieties of elite culture. The formula of elite culture is"art for art's sake"and the practice of "pure art".The meaning of elite culture is in the search for beauty, truth, the education of the moral qualities of the individual.
Mass culture(from lat massa- lump, piece and cultural- cultivation, education)does not express the refined tastes or spiritual quests of the people. It appeared in the middle of the twentieth century, whenMedia (radio print, television)penetrated into most countries of the world and became available to representatives of all social strata. The term "mass culture" was first introduced by the German philosopher M. Horkheimer in 1941 and by the American scientist D. Macdonald in 1944.
Mass culture May beinternational and national. She possesses less artistic valuethan elite. She has the mostwide audienceand it is copyrighted. Pop music is understandable and accessible to all ages to all segments of the population, regardless of the level of education, because. Mass culturesatisfies the immediate needs of people.
Therefore, its samples (hit songs) quickly lose their relevance, become obsolete and go out of fashion. This does not happen with works of elite and popular culture.
Mass culture is a state, or more precisely, a cultural situation corresponding to a certain form of social arrangement, in other words, culture "in the presence of the masses."In order to be able to talk about the presence of mass culture, it is necessary that its representative, a historical community called the mass, appear on the historical arena, and also that the corresponding type of consciousness, mass consciousness, acquire the dominant value.Mass and mass consciousness are connected and do not exist in isolation from each other. They act simultaneously as the "object" and "subject" of mass culture. It is around the masses and mass consciousness that his “intrigue” revolves.
Accordingly, only where we find the beginnings of these social and mental attitudes, we have the right to speak of the presence of mass culture. Therefore, both the history and prehistory of mass culture do not go beyond the framework of the modern European past. The people, the crowd, the peasants, the ethnos, the proletarians, the broad urban "lower classes", any other pre-modern European historical community and, accordingly, speak, think, feel, react in specific cases.She models situations and distributes roles.
The goal of the masses of culture is not so much to fill leisure and relieve tension in an industrial and post-industrial society, butstimulation of consumer consciousness in the recipient(viewer, listener, reader) thatforms a special type - passive, uncritical perception of this culture in humans. This creates a personality that is easy to manipulate.
Formed by mass culture, mass consciousness is diverse in manifestation. It is distinguished by conservatism, inertness, limitation, and has specific means of expression. Mass culture focuses not on realistic images, but on artificially created images (image) and stereotypes, where the main thing is the formula. This situation encourages idolatry.
Mass culture has given rise to the phenomenon of a consumer society in which there are no spiritual values.

Question 8. Mainstream, subculture and counterculture: typology, main features.
Mainstream(mainstream) - the predominant direction in any area (scientific, cultural, etc.) for certain period time.Often used to refer to any "official", mass trends in culture, art, in contrast to the alternative, underground, non-mass, elitist trend.I single out meistirim in cinematography and music.
Mainstream cinema , is usually used in relation toNorth Americancinema - blockbusters, and films of eminent European directors. in Russia the term mainstream in relation to cinema began to be used especially activelyafter the reform of the system of state financing of domestic cinema with the priority allocation of budgetary money for "major" film studios, whose high-budget films form the basis of the "mainstream" of Russian cinema.
Musical mainstream is used to refer to the most popular and commercially profitable trend in radio stations popular music, within which elements of the most popular styles at the moment can be mixed. The concept originated in the United States in the 1940s. The strongest influence on the music mainstream comes from the US (Billboard), the UK, Germany and Scandinavia.
It can also be distinguishedmainstream in literature is, for example, the great popularity of the detective genre among modern readers.
Subculture(lat. sub - under + cultura - culture; = subculture) -part of the culture of a society that differs from the prevailing one, as well as social groups bearers of this culture.The concept was introduced in 1950 by American sociologist David Riseman . A subculture may differ from the dominant culture in its own value system, language, demeanor, clothing, and other aspects. There are subculturesformed on national, demographic, professional, geographical and other bases. In particular, subcultures are formed by ethnic communities that differ in their dialect from the language norm. Another well-known example is youth subcultures. A subculture may arise from fanaticism or hobbies. Most often, subcultures are closed and tend to isolate themselves from mass culture. This is due to both the origin of subcultures (closed communities of interest) and the desire to separate from the main culture.
Subcultures:

Allocate musical a subculture that is associated with certain genres of music (hippies, rastamans, punks, metalheads, goths, emo, hip-hop, etc.). The image of musical subcultures is formed largely in imitation of the stage image of performers popular in this subculture.
Art subculture originated from a passion for a particular art or hobby, an example being anemo.
Interactive subcultures appeared in the mid-90s with the spread of Internet technologies: fido communities, hackers.
Industrial (urban) subcultures appeared in the 1920s and are associated with the inability of young people to live outside the city. Part of the industrial subcultures came out of industrial music fans, but computer games had the greatest influence on them.
to sports subcultures include Parkour and football fans.

Question 9. The problem of "East-West", "North-South" in cultural studies.
East-West. When meeting with eastern countries, even an uninitiated person is struck by theiridiosyncrasy and dissimilarityto what we are accustomed to seeing in Europe or America. Everything is different here: architecture, clothing, food, lifestyle, art, language, writing, and folklore, in a word, the most obvious components of any culture. Is it true,for the European eye, the East appears as something uniformly "Eastern", although in reality the differences between the countries of this region are sometimes very large.In the literature of the XX century. The famous English writer Rudyard became the most striking exponent of the idea of ​​​​the incompatibility of Western and Eastern cultures. Kipling (1865-1936), whose work was largely intended to show thatEast is East and West is West and that they will never understand each other. True, this last assertion is now refuted by life itself.
Differences between East and West, although they are smoothed out under the pressure of modern technotronic civilization, but stillremain very significant.
This is not least due to a certain "Eastern" type of thinking, closely associated with Eastern religions, which, with the exception of Islam, seem to be more tolerant, more prone to pantheism, i.e. deification of nature, and more "inscribed" in the very matter of culture.
In the East, in particular in India, religion and culture have practically coincided for thousands of years.For an oriental person, unlike a European, they are characterized by: great introversion, i.e. focus on oneself and one's own inner life; less propensity to perceive opposites, which are often denied; great faith in the perfection and harmony of the surrounding Universe, and hence the orientation not to its transformation, but to adaptation to a certain "cosmic rhythm".
In general, somewhat schematizing,the eastern type of thinking in relation to the outside world is more passive, more balanced, more independent of the external environment and focused on unity with nature.
It can be suspected that it is precisely these "compensatory" qualities of the Eastern worldview in our turbulent times that have become the reason for the current observable in Europe, America, and recently in our country, passion for Eastern religions, yoga and other similar beliefs, aimed not at "conquest" nature, but on the development of the secrets of man himself.
North South. Along with the East-West problem, the North-South problem has recently become increasingly important. The "South" refers to the social and cultural world of the peoples of the subtropical zone - the African continent, Oceania, Melanesia. The peoples living to the north form the socio-cultural world of the "North", in which dance plays a leading role. Thus, improvisational jazz has become widespread in our time (starting with L. Armstrong's "hot five", which introduced traditions born in Negro music into the culture of the North).
The art of the South left its mark on the work of such prominent European artists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries as Gauguin, Vlaminck, Matisse, Picasso, Dali, and others. African culture was one of the sources of expressionism and cubism in painting. Many European and American poets and writers (Apollinaire, Cocteau and others) reflected her motives in their works. The echo of African culture is present in philosophy (for example, in the concept of "respect for life" by the European thinker of the 20th century A. Schweitzer, who spent a long time in the wilds of Africa). Thanks to Negro athletes with their passion, perfected technique and rhythm of movements, many sports spectacles have become livelier, sharper and more dynamic: football, basketball, boxing, athletics, etc.
Thus, the culture of the South is already having a noticeable impact on the North. At the same time, there is an intensive assimilation by the southern peoples of the achievements of the culture of the northern countries. Further strengthening of contacts between North and South will undoubtedly contribute to the mutual enrichment of these social and cultural worlds.

Question 10. Religion as a phenomenon of culture, the main features and characteristics.
Religion is a multifaceted, branched, complex social phenomenon, represented by various types and forms, the most common of which are world religions, which include numerous directions, schools and organizations.
In cultural history special meaning There were three world religions:Buddhism in the 6th century BC e., Christianity in the 1st c. AD and Islam in the 7th century. n. e.These religions have made significant changes in culture, entering into a complex interaction with its various elements and aspects. The term "religion" is of Latin origin and means "piety, shrine".Religion is a special attitude, appropriate behavior and specific actions based on belief in the supernatural, something higher and sacred.In interaction with art, religion addresses the spiritual life of a person and interprets the meaning and goals of human existence in its own way. Art and religion reflect the world in the form of artistic images, comprehend the truth intuitively, through insight. They are unthinkable without an emotional attitude to the world, without a developed imagery, fantasy. But art has broader possibilities of figurative reflection of the world, which go beyond the bounds of religious consciousness. The primitive culture is characterized by the indivisibility of social consciousness, thereforein ancient times, religion, which was a complex synthesis of totemism, animism, fetishism and magic, was merged with primitive art and morality.All together they were an artistic reflection of nature, human environment, his labor activity - hunting, farming, gathering. First, apparently, a dance appeared, which was a magical body movements aimed at appeasing or frightening the spirits, then music and mimicry were born. Religion had a huge impact on ancient culture, one of the elements of which was ancient Greek mythology.Ancient Greek mythology had a great influence on the culture of many modern European peoples. Religion has had a great influence on literature. The three major world religions - Buddhism, Christianity and Islam - gave the world three great books - the Vedas, the Bible and the Koran.The role of religion in the history of world culture was not only that it bestowed on humanity these sacred books - sources of wisdom, kindness and creative inspiration. Religion has had a considerable influence on the literature of different countries and peoples.
Thus, Christianity influenced Russian literature.

Question 11. The theory of cultural-historical types N.Ya. Danilevsky.
Nikolai Yakovlevich Danilevsky (November 28 (December 10), 1822 - November 7 (19), 1885) - Russian sociologist, culturologist, publicist and naturalist; geopolitician,one of the founders of the civilizational approach to history, the ideologist of pan-Slavism.
In my work "Russia and Europe" Danilevsky criticized Eurocentrism, which dominated the historiography of the 19th century, and, in particular, the generally accepted scheme for dividing world history intoAntiquity, Middle Ages and Modern Times. The Russian thinker considered such a division to have only a conditional meaning and completely unjustifiably “tying” phenomena of a completely different kind to the stages of European history.
The concept of "cultural-historical types"- central to the teachings of Danilevsky. By his own definition,an original cultural-historical type is formed by any tribe or family of peoples, characterized by a separate language or a group of languages ​​that are quite close to each other, if at all, according to their spiritual inclinations, they are capable of historical development and already out of infancy.
Danilevsky singled out Egyptian, Chinese, Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician, Chaldean or ancient Semitic, Indian, Iranian, Jewish, Greek, Roman, New Semitic or Arabian and Germano-Romance as the main cultural and historical types that have already realized themselves in history. or European, as well as Mexican and Peruvian, which did not have time to complete their development.
main focus Danilevsky gaveGermano-Romance and Slavic types: considering the Slavic type more promising,he predicted that in the future the Russian-led Slavs would take the place of the declining Germano-Romance type on the historical stage. Europe, according to Danilevsky's forecasts, should be replaced by Russia with its mission of uniting all Slavic peoples and high religious potential.The triumph of the Slavs would mean the "decline" of Europe, which is hostile towards its "young" rival - Russia.
Like the Slavophiles, Danilevsky believed that European and Slavic statehood came from different roots. Considering the signs that determine the allocation of types, namely large ethnographic differences,Danilevsky indicates the differences between the Slavic peoples and the German ones in three categories: ethnographic features (mental structure), religiosity, differences in historical education. This analysis is a continuation and extension of the cultural comparative analysis of the early Slavophiles.
Danilevsky's book contains many thoughts, the value of which increased significantly at the end of the 20th century. One of them is a warning from the author of "Russia and Europe" aboutdangers of denationalization of culture.The establishment of the world domination of one cultural-historical type, according to Danilevsky, would be disastrous for humanity, since the domination of one civilization, one culture would deprive the human race of necessary condition improvement is an element of diversity. Considering that the biggestevil is the loss of "moral national identity", Danilevsky resolutelycondemned the West for imposing its culture on the rest of the world.Earlier than most of his contemporaries, the Russian thinker understood that in order for the "cultural power" not to dry out in humanity in general, it is necessary to resist the power of one cultural-historical type, it is necessary to "change the direction" of cultural development.
He insisted that“The state and the people are transient phenomena and exist only in time, and therefore, only on the requirement of this temporary existence of theirs can the laws of their activity be based”. Considering the concept of human progress as too abstract, Danilevsky practically ruled out the possibility of direct continuity in cultural and historical development.
"The beginnings of civilization are not transmitted from one cultural-historical type to another."Various forms of influence of one cultural type on another are not only possible, but actually inevitable.
Actually, the key point in Danilevsky's concept, which to this day is included in courses in the history of sociology around the world, iscyclical civilizational process.Unlike Toynbee and Spengler, Danilevsky does not focus his attention on the signs of decline or progress, but collects extensive factual material that makes it possible to see the repetition of social orders behind many historical features.

Question 12. The doctrine of the "ideal types" of culture M. Weber.
Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (April 21, 1864 – June 14, 1920) was a German sociologist, historian and economist.
The most important place in Weber's social philosophy is occupied by the concept of ideal types.Under the ideal type, he meant a certain ideal model of what is most useful to a person, objectively meets his interests at the moment and in general in the modern era.In this regard, moral, political, religious and other values , as well as the installations of behavior and activities of people, rules and norms of behavior, traditions arising from them.
Ideal types of Webercharacterize, as it were, the essence of optimal social states - states of power, interpersonal communication, individual and group consciousness.Because of this, they act as a kind of guidelines and criteria, based on which it is necessary to make changes in the spiritual, political and material life of people. Since the ideal type does not completely coincide with what is in society, and oftencontrary to reality(or the latter contradicts him), he, according to Weber, carries intothe features of utopia.
Nevertheless, ideal types, expressing in their relationship a system of spiritual and other values, act as socially significant phenomena. They contribute to the introduction of expediency in the thinking and behavior of people and organization in public life. Weber's doctrine of ideal types serves for his followers as a kind of methodological setting for understanding social life and solving practical problems related, in particular, to the ordering and organization of the elements of spiritual, material and political life.
Weber identifies twoideally typical organizations of economic behavior: traditional and goal-oriented. The first has existed since antiquity, the second develops in modern times.. The overcoming of traditionalism is connected with the development of a modern rational capitalist economy, which presupposes the existence of certain types of social relations and certain forms of social order. Analyzing these forms, Weber comes to two conclusions: the idealthe type of capitalism is described by him as the triumph of rationality in all spheres of economic life, and such a development cannot be explained solely by economic reasons.

Question 13. Psychoanalytic concepts of culture (3. Freud, K. Jung, E. Fromm).
Of particular interest in the cultural studies of psychoanalysis is psychoanalysis and the concept of culture of the Austrian psychiatrist S. Freud.
Z. Freud replaced the problem of death,essentially identical to it, but not leading to the transcendentbirth problem. The concepts of "death" and "birth" really merge into one, and the task of cultural studies within the framework of classical psychoanalysis can be designated asstudy of the three most important stages, the birth-death of the substantive system "man-culture":
1. The culture of birth together with the first great man as a system of his phobic (phobia-fear) projections,functionally disintegrating into a set of provoking prohibitions and a set of obsessive rituals of their symbolic violation.
2 . Culture turns its productive side, acting as a program of incarnation worked out for centuries, a symbolic series of "ancient temptations", lures of individuations. It awakens ancient, archetypal experiences in the child's memory field with the help of their symbolic real or fantasy repetition in early childhood - in fairy tales, games, dreams.
3. Culture is extremely repressive;its purpose is to protect society from the free individual,who rejected both biological and mass-like regulators, and means - total frustration, the distillation of freedom into guilt and expectation of punishment,pushing the individual either to the impersonality of mass identifications, or to auto-aggressive neuroticism, or to aggression directed outward, which increases cultural pressure and aggravates the situation. Culture is consolidated as an enemy of any manifestations of human individuality.Z. Freud developed a universal methodology for controlling the degree of repressiveness of culture, which he called "metapsychology".
Carl Gustave Jung- Swiss psychologist, philosopher and psychiatrist developed his own version of the doctrine of the unconscious, calling it "analytical psychology" and wanting to emphasize both his dependence and independence in relation to Freud.Jung considered the "psychic" to be the primary substance, and the individual soul appeared to him as a luminous point in the space of the collective unconscious.If Freud saw the essence of the personal and general cultural evolutionary process in rationalization (according to the principle: where there was “it”, there will be “I”), then C. G. Jung connectedthe formation of a personality with a harmonious and equal "cooperation" of consciousness and the unconscious, with interpenetration and balancing in a person of "male" and "female", rational and emotional principles, "Eastern" and "Western" elements of culture, introverted and extraverted orientations, archetypal and phenomenal material of mental life.
The next step towards complicating the model of the structure and behavior of personality in culture was the theory E. Fromm. Erich Frommdevelops an original version of the anthropology of culture, tries to build a new humanistic religion. He focuses not on the revolution and not on medical measures, but on the tasks of cultural policy. Psychoanalysis , according to Fromm, combined with Marx's theory of alienation, class struggleallows you to reveal the true motives of human actions.
From the position of modern existential-personalist ethics, Fromm rebels against all authoritarianism, insisting that inIn each historical and individual situation, a person must make a choice himself, without shifting responsibility to anyone and without boasting about his past achievements.
Fromm sees the meaning of the cultural-historical process in the progressive "individuation", i.e. in the liberation of the individual from the power of the herd, instinct, tradition, but history is not a smoothly ascending, but a reciprocating process in which periods of liberation and enlightenment alternate with periods of enslavement and clouding of the mind, i.e. "Escape from freedom". Fromm derives the specificity of culture not only from the nature of man, given by existential needs, but from the features of the “human situation”.Reason is the pride of man and his curse. The desire for spiritual synthesis is the strong side of E. Fromm's work, but it also turns into eclecticism. But the spirit of optimism, humanism and courage in posing the most painful and intricate questions of civilization, faith in the possibility of their reasonable solution make Fromm's cultural studies fascinating and inspiring.

Question 14. A. Toynbee's concept of local civilizations.
Among the most representative theories of civilizations is primarily the theory of A. Toynbee (1889-1975), who continues the line of N.Ya. Danilevsky and O. Spengler. Histheory can be considered the culminating point in the development of theories of "local civilizations".Monumental study by A. Toynbee"Comprehension of history"many scholars recognize it as a masterpiece of historical and macro-sociological science. The English culturologist begins his research with the statement thatthe true field of historical analysis must be societies that have both time and space a greater extent than nation-states. They are called "local civilizations".
Toynbee has more than twenty such developed "local civilizations".These are Western, two Orthodox (Russian and Byzantine), Iranian, Arabic, Indian, two Far Eastern, ancient, Syrian, Indus, Chinese, Minoan, Sumerian, Hittite, Babylonian, Andean, Mexican, Yucatan, Maya, Egyptian and others. He also points tofour civilizations that stopped in their development - the Eskimo, Momadic, Ottoman and Spartan and five "stillborn».
The formation of civilizations cannot be explained either by a racial factor, or by a geographical environment, or by a specific combination of such two conditions as the presence in a given society of a creative minority and an environment that is neither too unfavorable nor too favorable.
Toynbee thinks thatthe growth of civilization consists in a progressive and accumulative internal self-determinationor self-expression of civilization, in the transition from a coarser to a more subtle religion and culture. Growth is a continuous "retreat and return" of the charismatic (God's chosen, destined from above to power) minority of society in the process of always new successful response to the always new challenges of the external environment.
At least 16 out of 26 civilizations are now "dead and buried." Of the ten civilizations left alive, “Polynesian and nomadic ... are now at their last gasp; and seven of the eight others are more or less threatened with destruction or assimilation by our Western civilization.” Moreover, no less than six of these seven civilizations show signs of breaking and decay. What leads to decline is that the creative minority, intoxicated with victory, begins to "rest on its laurels", to worship relative values ​​as absolute. It loses its charismatic appeal and most do not imitate or follow it. Therefore, more and more force has to be used to control the internal and external proletariat. In the course of this process, the minority organizes a "universal (universal) state", similar to the Roman Empire, created by the Hellenistic dominant minority to preserve themselves and their civilization; enters into wars; becomes a slave to inert institutions; and itself leads itself and its civilization to death.
By Tylor civilizations are divided by him into three generations.First generation - primitive, small, non-literate cultures. There are many of them, and their age is small. They differ in one-sided specialization, adapted to life in a specific geographical environment; superstructural elements - statehood, education, the church, and even more so science and art - are absent in them.
In second-generation civilizations, social bonding is directed towards creative individuals who lead the pioneers of a new social order.Civilizations of the second generation are dynamic, they create large cities like Rome and Babylon, they develop the division of labor, commodity exchange, the market. There are layers of artisans, scientists, merchants, people of mental labor. A complex system of ranks and statuses is being approved. Here the attributes of democracy can develop: elected bodies, legal system, self-government, separation of powers.
Civilizations of the third generation are formed on the basis of churches: from the primary Minoan, the secondary Hellenic is born, and from it - on the basis of Christianity that arose in its depths - the tertiary, Western European is formed. In total, according to Toynbee, by the middle of the 20th century. of the three dozen civilizations that existed, seven or eight survived: Christian, Islamic, Hindu, etc.

Question 15. The concept of socio-cultural styles P.A. Sorokin.
The Russian scientist Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968) created an original concept of the sociology of culture, believing that the true cause and condition for the natural development of society or the "world of society" is the existence of a world of values, the meanings of pure cultural systems.A person is the bearer of a system of values, which means that he also represents a certain type of culture.. According to Sorokin, each type of culture is determined social system, cultural systems of society and the person himself, the bearer of cultural values. The type of culture is revealed in people's ideas about the nature of the existing real world, about the nature and essence of their needs, and about possible methods for satisfying them. These representations characterizethree main types of culture - sensual, ideational and idealistic.The first of them, the sensory type of culture, is based on the sensory perception of the world by a person, which is the main determinant of socio-cultural processes. From Sorokin's point of view, modern sensory culture is under the sign of inevitable collapse and crisis. The ideational type of culture, according to the scientist, is the dominance of rational thinking, and it characterizes different peoples in certain periods of their development. This type of culture, Sorokin believes, is especially characteristic of countries Western Europe. And finally, the third type of culture is the idealistic type, which is characterized by the dominance of intuitive forms of knowledge of the world.
If the world of modern culture is characterized by a passion for science and the dominance of materialism, then in the future humanity must move away from these values ​​and create a new type of socio-cultural processes based on the values ​​of religion and creative altruism.
Sorokin's work had a significant impact on the work of other culturologists, drawing their special attention to the study of the origins of the ancient cultures of Asia and Africa. Exploring the system of value orientations of a particular society, culturologists obtain data on the impact of values ​​on various aspects of socio-cultural life - law and legislation, science and art, religion and church, social structure subordinated to a certain system of values.
According to P. A. Sorokin, a certain type of culture should have the following features: a) purely spatial or temporal neighborhood; b) indirect causal relationships; c) direct causal relationships; d) semantic unity; e) causal-semantic relationship.
Actually, the typology should have the following features: firstly, the enumeration in this type of relationship usually exhausts itself; secondly, typology always has a single basis, that is, all signs have a single basis. However, the creation of a typology can be hindered, firstly, by the fragility of the cultural characteristics themselves, and secondly, in the course of development, the differences between certain cultures can be erased; thirdly, the ideological and semantic core inherent in any culture can cause unequal social consequences; fourthly, when cultures converge within the dominant culture, some initially imperceptible, opposite to its spirit phenomena arise, which in the future can significantly transform the very appearance of this culture.

Question 16. O. Spengler on the relationship and fate of culture and civilization.
Book by Oswald Spengler (1880-1936)" Sunset of Europe "became one of the most significant and controversial masterpieces in the field of sociology of culture, philosophy of history and philosophy of culture. World history is the alternation and coexistence of different cultures, each of which has a unique soul. The title of Spengler's work "The Decline of Europe" expresses its pathos. He claims , Whatthe heyday of Western European culture ended. It has entered the phase of civilization and cannot give anything original either in the realm of the spirit or in the realm of art.. History breaks up into a number of independent, unique closed cyclic cultures that have a purely individual destiny, are sentenced to survivebirth, formation and decline. Philosophers usually attribute to culture everything that rises above nature. The huge ethnographic material collected by researchers after Spengler testifies:Culture is actually a unique creative impulse.This is indeed a sphere of the spirit, which is far from always inspired by the needs of practical use. Primitive man, if you look at him with modern eyes, did not understand his own benefit. However, following Spengler, we can say that anyculture inevitably passes into civilization. Civilization is destiny, rock culture. The transition from culture to civilization is a throw from creativity to barrenness, from becoming to ossification, from heroic "deeds" to "mechanical work." Civilization, according to Spengler, usually ends in death, for it is the beginning of death, the exhaustion of the creative forces of culture.Culture comes from a cult, it is connected with the cult of ancestors, it is impossible without sacred traditions. Civilization, according to Spengler, is the will to world power.Culture is national, civilization is international.Civilization is a world city. Imperialism and socialism are equally civilization, not culture. Philosophy, art exist only in culture, in civilization they are impossible and not needed.. Culture is organic, civilization is mechanical.Culture is based on inequality, on qualities. Civilization is imbued with a desire for equality, it wants to settle in numbers. Culture is aristocratic, civilization is democratic. Each cultural organism, according to Spengler, is pre-measured for a certain period (about a millennium), which depends on the internal life cycle. Dying, culture is reborn into civilization. The decline of Europe, first of all, the decline of the old European culture, the exhaustion of its creative forces, the end of art, philosophies, religions. European civilization is not over yet. She will celebrate her victories for a long time. But after civilization, death will come for the Western European cultural race. After that, culture can flourish only in other races, in other souls.

Question 17. E. Tylor and D. Fraser about primitive culture.
In 1871 the main work was published Tylor, which glorified his name, - "Primitive culture".Culture here is only spiritual culture: knowledge, art, beliefs, legal and moral normsetc. In both earlier and later writings, Tylor treated culture more broadly to include at least technology as well.Tylor understood that the evolution of culture is also the result of historical influences and borrowings.. Although Taylor was aware thatcultural development is not so straightforward.Yet for Tylor as an evolutionist, the most important thing was to show the cultural unity and uniform development of mankind, and in pursuing this main goal, he rarely looked around. Much attention is paid in "Primitive Culture" to the theoretical substantiation of progress in the cultural history of mankind. The question of the relationship between progress and regress in the history of mankind, Tylor decided quite unambiguously."Judging by the data of history, the initial phenomenon is progress, while degeneration can only follow it: after all, it is necessary first to reach some level of culture in order to be able to lose it."
Tylor introduced into ethnography the concept"primitive animism". Tylor illustrated his animistic theory of the origin of religion with impressive comparative ethnographic and historical material, designed to show the spread of animism on the globe and its evolution over time.In our time, the prevailing opinion is that the original layer of religious beliefs was most likely totemism,in which people, in the only form possible for them at that time, realized their inseparable, as it were, family connection with the immediate natural environment.
Frazier was the first to suggest the presenceconnections between myths and rituals. His research was based onthree principles are laid down: evolutionary development, the psychic unity of mankind, and the fundamental opposition of reason to prejudice. First job " totemism published in 1887. Fraser's most famous work, which brought him worldwide fame, is " golden branch "("The Golden Bough") - was first published in 1890. This book collects and systematizes a huge factual material on primitive magic, mythology, totemism, animism, taboo, religious beliefs, folklore and customs of different peoples. This book draws parallels between ancient cults and early Christianity. Labor has been extended to 12 volumes over the next 25 years.
D. D. Fraser deduced three stages of the spiritual development of mankind: magic, religion and science.According to Frazer, magic precedes religion and disappears almost entirely with its advent. At the "magical" stage of development, people believed in their ability to change the world around them in a magical way. Later, people lost faith in this and the idea became dominant that the world obeys the gods and supernatural forces. At the third stage, the person refuses this idea as well. The prevailing belief is that the world is not controlled by God, but by the "laws of nature", knowing which, you can control it.

Question 18. Cultural genesis, the origins of culture and its early forms.
Cultural genesis is the process of the emergence and formation of the culture of any people and nationality in general and the emergence of culture as such in a primitive society.
The culture of primitive society covers the longest and perhaps the least studied period of world culture. Primitive, or archaic culture has more than 30 thousand years.Under primitive culture, it is customary to understand an archaic culture that characterizes the beliefs, traditions and art of peoples who lived more than 30 thousand years ago and died long ago or those peoples (for example, tribes lost in the jungle) that exist today, preserving the primitive image intact life. Thus, primitive culture embraces mainly the art of the Stone Age.
The first material evidence of human existence are tools. Thus, the manufacture of tools, the emergence of burials, the emergence of articulate speech, the transition to a tribal community, the creation of art objects were the main milestones in the formation of human culture.
Based on the data of archeology, ethnography and linguistics, it is possible to designate main features of primitive culture.
Syncretism primitive culturemeans indivisibility in this era of various spheres and phenomena of culture.The following manifestations of syncretism can be distinguished:
Syncretism of society and nature . The clan, the community were perceived as identical to the cosmos, they repeated the structure of the universe.Primitive man perceived himself as an organic part of nature, feeling his kinship with all living beings.This feature, for example, is manifested in such a form of primitive beliefs as totemism.
Syncretism of the personal and the public. Individual sensation in primitive man existed at the level of instinct, biological feeling. But on a spiritual level, he identified himself not with himself, but with the community to which he belonged; found himself in the feeling of belonging to something extra-individual. A person initially became just a person, displacing his individuality. Actuallyhis human essence was expressed in the collective "we" of the kind. It means that primitive always explained and evaluated himself through the eyes of the community. Fusion with the life of society led to the fact thatthe worst punishment death penalty, was exile.For example, in many archaic tribes, people are convinced that hunting will not be successful if the wife, who remains in the village, cheats on her husband, who has gone hunting.
Syncretism of various spheres of culture . Art, religion, medicine, producing activities, obtaining food were not isolated from each other.Art objects (masks, drawings, figurines, musical instruments, etc.) have long been used mainly as magical means. Treatment was carried out with the help of magical rites. For example, hunting. Modern man only objective conditions are needed for the success of the hunt. For the ancients, the art of throwing a spear and silently making their way through the forest, the right direction of the wind and other objective conditions were also of great importance. But all this is clearly not enough to achieve success, because the main conditions were magical actions.The hunt began with magical actions on the hunter. At the very moment of the hunt, certain rituals and prohibitions were also observed, which were aimed at establishing a mystical connection between man and animal.
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