Russian literature of the 19th century. The development of Russian literature and culture in the second half of the XIX

"Small man"- a type of literary hero that arose in Russian literature with the advent of realism, that is, in the 20-30s of the XIX century.

The theme of the "little man" is one of the cross-cutting themes of Russian literature, which was constantly addressed by writers of the 19th century. A.S. Pushkin was the first to mention it in the story “The Stationmaster”. The successors of this theme were N.V. Gogol, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and many others.

This person is small precisely in social terms, since he occupies one of the lower rungs of the hierarchical ladder. His place in society is little or completely invisible. A person is considered “small” also because the world of his spiritual life and claims is also extremely narrow, impoverished, filled with all sorts of prohibitions. For him there are no historical and philosophical problems. He lives in a narrow and closed circle of his vital interests.

The best humanistic traditions are associated with the theme of the "little man" in Russian literature. Writers invite people to think about the fact that every person has the right to happiness, to their own outlook on life.

Examples of "little people":

1) Yes, Gogol in the story "The Overcoat" characterizes the protagonist as a poor, ordinary, insignificant and inconspicuous person. In life, he was assigned the insignificant role of a copyist of departmental documents. Brought up in the sphere of subordination and execution of orders of superiors, Akaky Akakievich Bashmachkin not accustomed to reflect on the meaning of his work. That is why, when he is offered a task that requires the manifestation of elementary ingenuity, he begins to worry, worry, and in the end comes to the conclusion: “No, it’s better to let me rewrite something.”

The spiritual life of Bashmachkin is in tune with his inner aspirations. The accumulation of money to buy a new overcoat becomes for him the goal and meaning of life. The theft of a long-awaited new thing, which was acquired through hardship and suffering, becomes a disaster for him.

And yet Akaky Akakievich does not look like an empty, uninteresting person in the mind of the reader. We imagine that there were a great many such small, humiliated people. Gogol urged society to look at them with understanding and pity. This is indirectly demonstrated by the surname of the protagonist: diminutive suffix -chk-(Bashmachkin) gives it the appropriate shade. "Mother, save your poor son!" - the author will write.

Calling for justice the author raises the question of the need to punish the inhumanity of society. As compensation for the humiliation and insults suffered during his lifetime, Akaky Akakievich, who rose from the grave in the epilogue, comes through and takes away their overcoats and fur coats. He calms down only when he takes away the outer clothing of the "significant person" who played a tragic role in the life of the "little man". 2) In the story Chekhov "Death of an official" we see the slavish soul of an official whose understanding of the world is completely distorted. There is no need to talk about human dignity here. The author gives his hero a wonderful last name: Chervyakov. Describing the small, insignificant events of his life, Chekhov seems to look at the world with Chervyakov's eyes, and these events become huge. So, Chervyakov was at the performance and “felt on top of bliss. But suddenly ... sneezed. Looking around like a "polite person", the hero was horrified to find that he had sprayed a civilian general. Chervyakov begins to apologize, but this seemed not enough to him, and the hero asks for forgiveness again and again, day after day ... There are a lot of such little officials who know only their little world and it is not surprising that their experiences are made up of such small situations. The author conveys the whole essence of the official's soul, as if examining it under a microscope. Unable to bear the cry in response to the apology, Chervyakov goes home and dies. This terrible catastrophe of his life is the catastrophe of his limitations. 3) In addition to these writers, Dostoevsky also addressed the theme of the “little man” in his work. The main characters of the novel "Poor people" - Makar Devushkin- a half-impoverished official, crushed by grief, want and social lawlessness, and Varenka- a girl who has become a victim of social ill-being. Like Gogol in The Overcoat, Dostoevsky turned to the theme of the disenfranchised, immensely humiliated "little man" who lives his inner life in conditions that trample on the dignity of man. The author sympathizes with his poor heroes, shows the beauty of their soul. 4) Theme "poor people" develops as a writer in the novel "Crime and Punishment". One by one, the writer reveals before us pictures of terrible poverty, which humiliates the dignity of a person. The scene of the work becomes Petersburg, and the poorest district of the city. Dostoevsky creates a canvas of immeasurable human torment, suffering and grief, peers penetratingly into the soul of the “little man”, discovers in him deposits of enormous spiritual wealth. Family life unfolds before us Marmeladov. These are people crushed by reality. He drinks himself with grief and loses his human appearance official Marmeladov, who has "nowhere else to go." Exhausted by poverty, his wife Ekaterina Ivanovna dies of consumption. Sonya is released into the street to sell her body in order to save her family from starvation. The fate of the Raskolnikov family is also difficult. His sister Dunya, wanting to help her brother, is ready to sacrifice herself and marry the rich Luzhin, whom she feels disgusted with. Raskolnikov himself conceives a crime, the roots of which, in part, lie in the sphere social relations in society. The images of “little people” created by Dostoevsky are imbued with the spirit of protest against social injustice, against the humiliation of people and faith in their high calling. The souls of the "poor" can be beautiful, full of spiritual generosity and beauty, but broken by the hardest conditions of life.

The Russian world in the prose of the 19th century.

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Depiction of reality in Russian literature of the 19th century.

Scenery. Functions and types.

Interior: detail problem.

The image of time in a literary text.

The motive of the road as a form of artistic development of the national picture of the world.

Scenery - not necessarily an image of nature, in literature it may involve a description of any open space. This definition corresponds to the semantics of the term. From French - country, area. In French art theory, the landscape description includes both the depiction of wildlife and the depiction of man-made objects.

The well-known typology of landscapes is based on the specifics of the functioning of this text component.

Firstly, landscapes stand out, which are the background of the story. These landscapes, as a rule, indicate the place and time against which the depicted events take place.

The second type of landscape- a landscape creating a lyrical background. Most often, when creating such a landscape, the artist pays attention to meteorological conditions, because this landscape should first of all influence the emotional state of the reader.

Third type- a landscape that creates/becomes a psychological background of existence and becomes one of the means of revealing the character's psychology.

Fourth type- a landscape that becomes a symbolic background, a means of symbolic reflection of the reality depicted in a literary text.

The landscape can be used as a means of depicting a particular artistic time or as a form of presence of the author.

This typology is not the only one. The landscape can be expositional, dual, etc. Modern critics isolate Goncharov's landscapes; it is believed that Goncharov used the landscape for an ideal representation of the world. For a person who writes, the evolution of the landscape skill of Russian writers is fundamentally important. There are two main periods:

pre-Pushkin, during this period, landscapes were characterized by the completeness and concreteness of the surrounding nature;

post-Pushkin period, the idea of ​​an ideal landscape has changed. It assumes the stinginess of details, the economy of the image and the accuracy of the selection of details. Accuracy, according to Pushkin, involves identifying the most significant feature perceived in a certain way by feelings. This idea of ​​Pushkin, then will be used by Bunin.

Second level. Interior - image of the interior. The main unit of the interior image is a detail (detail), attention to which was first demonstrated by Pushkin. The literary test of the 19th century did not show a clear boundary between the interior and the landscape.

Time in a literary text in the 19th century becomes discrete, intermittent. Heroes easily go into memories and whose fantasies rush into the future. There is a selectivity of the attitude to time, which is explained by the dynamics. Time in a literary text in the 19th century has a convention. The most conditional time in a lyrical work, with the predominance of the grammar of the present tense, for lyrics, the interaction of different time layers is especially characteristic. Artistic time is not necessarily concrete, it is abstract. In the 19th century, the image of historical color becomes a special means of concretizing artistic time.

One of the most effective means of depicting reality in the 19th century is the motive of the road, becomes part of the plot formula, a narrative unit. Initially, this motif dominated the travel genre. In the 11th-18th centuries, in the genre of travel, the motive of the road was used, first of all, to expand ideas about the surrounding space (cognitive function). In sentimentalist prose, the cognitive function of this motif is complicated by evaluativeness. Gogol uses travel to explore the surrounding space. The renewal of the functions of the road motif is associated with the name of Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov. "Silence" 1858

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The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin. But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin " Bronze Horseman"(1833)," The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Known for his romantic poem "Mtsyri", poetic story "Demon", a lot of romantic poems. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connectedwith the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with prose works A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, influenced by English historical novels, creates story "The Captain's Daughter" where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did an enormous job, exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power. A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster". Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In a prose poem N.V. Gogol " Dead Souls» the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices(the influence of classicism affects). Comedy is in the same vein. "Inspector". The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of the entire Russian classical literature . It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city". WITH mid-nineteenth century, the formation of Russian realistic literature takes place, which is created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that prevailed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. The crisis of the feudal system is brewing, the contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development. Writers address to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism. people. The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of a small literary genre - a story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky. The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

7. Literary situation at the end of the 19th century.

Realism

The second half of the 19th century is characterized by the undivided dominance of the realistic trend in Russian literature. basis realism as an artistic method is socio-historical and psychological determinism. The personality and fate of the depicted person appears as the result of the interaction of his character (or, more deeply, universal human nature) with the circumstances and laws of social life (or, more broadly, history, culture - as can be observed in the work of A.S. Pushkin).

Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century. often call critical, or socially accusatory. Recently, in modern literary criticism, there have been more and more attempts to abandon such a definition. It is both too wide and too narrow; it levels out the individual characteristics of the writers' work. The founder of critical realism is often called N.V. Gogol, however, in Gogol's work, social life, the history of the human soul is often correlated with such categories as eternity, supreme justice, the providential mission of Russia, the kingdom of God on earth. Gogol's tradition to one degree or another in the second half of the 19th century. picked up by L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, partly N.S. Leskov - it is no coincidence that in their work (especially later) there is a craving for such pre-realistic forms of comprehension of reality as a sermon, a religious and philosophical utopia, a myth, a life. No wonder M. Gorky expressed the idea of ​​the synthetic nature of Russian classical realism, about its non-delimitation from the romantic direction. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the realism of Russian literature not only opposes, but also interacts in its own way with the emerging symbolism. The realism of the Russian classics is universal, it is not limited to the reproduction of empirical reality, it includes a universal content, a “mystical plan”, which brings realists closer to the search for romantics and symbolists.

Socially accusatory pathos in its purest form appears most in the work of writers of the second row - F.M. Reshetnikova, V.A. Sleptsova, G.I. Uspensky; even N.A. Nekrasov and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, with all their closeness to the aesthetics of revolutionary democracy, are not limited in their work posing purely social, topical issues. Nevertheless, a critical orientation towards any form of social and spiritual enslavement of a person unites all realist writers of the second half of the 19th century.

XIX century revealed the main aesthetic principles and typological properties of realism. In Russian literature of the second half of the XIX century. It is conditionally possible to single out several directions within the framework of realism.

1. The work of realist writers who strive for the artistic recreation of life in the "forms of life itself." The image often acquires such a degree of reliability that literary heroes are spoken of as living people. I.S. belong to this direction. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, partly N.A. Nekrasov, A.N. Ostrovsky, partly L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov.

2. Bright in the 60s and 70s the philosophical-religious, ethical-psychological direction in Russian literature is outlined(L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky). Dostoevsky and Tolstoy have amazing pictures of social reality, depicted in the "forms of life itself." But at the same time, writers always start from certain religious and philosophical doctrines.

3. Satirical, grotesque realism(in the 1st half of the 19th century, it was partly represented in the works of N.V. Gogol, in the 60-70s it unfolded in full force in the prose of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). The grotesque does not act as hyperbole or fantasy, it characterizes the writer's method; it combines in images, types, plots what is unnatural, and is absent in life, but possible in the world created by the creative imagination of the artist; similar grotesque, hyperbolic images emphasize certain patterns that prevail in life.

4. Completely unique realism, "hearted" (Belinsky's word) by humanistic thought, presented in art A.I. Herzen. Belinsky noted the “Voltaireian” warehouse of his talent: “talent went into the mind”, which turns out to be a generator of images, details, plots, biographies of a person.

Along with the dominant realistic trend in Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. also developed the direction of the so-called " pure art- it is both romantic and realistic. Its representatives eschewed "damned questions" (What to do? Who is to blame?), but not reality, by which they meant the world of nature and the subjective feeling of a person, the life of his heart. They were excited by the beauty of life itself, the fate of the world. A.A. Fet and F.I. Tyutchev can be directly comparable with I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky. The poetry of Fet and Tyutchev had a direct influence on the work of Tolstoy in the era of Anna Karenina. It is no coincidence that Nekrasov discovered F.I. Tyutchev to the Russian public as a great poet in 1850.

Problematics and Poetics

Russian prose, with all the flourishing of poetry and dramaturgy (A.N. Ostrovsky), occupies a central place in the literary process of the second half of the 19th century. It develops in line with the realistic trend, preparing, in the variety of genre searches of Russian writers, an artistic synthesis - a novel, the pinnacle of the world literary development 19th century

The search for new artistic techniques images of a person in his connections with the world appeared not only in the genres story, story or novel (I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.F. Pisemsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, D. Grigorovich). Striving for an accurate recreation of life in the literature of the late 40s and 50s begins to look for a way out in memoir-autobiographical genres, with their installation on documentary. At this time, they begin to work on the creation of their autobiographical books. A.I. Herzen and S.T. Aksakov; the trilogy partly adjoins this genre tradition. L.N. Tolstoy ("Childhood", "Adolescence", "Youth").

Another documentary genre goes back to aesthetics natural school", This - feature article. In its purest form, it is presented in the works of democratic writers N.V. Uspensky, V.A. Sleptsova, A.I. Levitova, N.G. Pomyalovsky (“Essays on Bursa”); in a revised and largely transformed form - in Turgenev's Notes of a Hunter and Saltykov-Shchedrin's Provincial Essays, Dostoevsky's Notes from the House of the Dead. Here, a complex interpenetration of artistic and documentary elements is observed, fundamentally new forms of narrative prose are created that combine the features of a novel , essay, autobiographical notes.

The desire for epicness is a characteristic feature of the Russian literary process of the 1860s; it captures both poetry (N. Nekrasov) and dramaturgy (A.N. Ostrovsky).

The epic picture of the world as a deep subtext is felt in novels I.A. Goncharova(1812-1891) “Oblomov” and “Cliff”. Thus, in the novel “Oblomov”, the description of typical character traits and way of life subtly turns into the image of the universal content of life, its eternal states, collisions, situations. , which has firmly entered the Russian public consciousness under the name "Oblomovism", Goncharov contrasts it with the preaching of the deed (the image of the Russian German Andrei Stolz) - and at the same time shows the limitations of this sermon. Oblomov's inertia appears in unity with genuine humanity. The composition of the "Oblomovism" also includes the poetry of a noble estate, the generosity of Russian hospitality, the touchingness of Russian holidays, the beauty of Central Russian nature - Goncharov traces the primordial connection of noble culture, noble consciousness with folk soil. The very inertia of Oblomov's existence is rooted in the depths of centuries, in the distant corners of our national memory. Ilya Oblomov is somewhat akin to Ilya Muromets, who sat on the stove for 30 years, or the fabulous simpleton Emelya, who achieved his goals without applying his own efforts - "at the behest of the pike, at my will." "Oblomovism" is a phenomenon of not just noble, but Russian national culture, and as such it is not idealized by Goncharov at all - the artist explores both its strengths and weaknesses. In the same way, purely European pragmatism, opposed to Russian Oblomovism, reveals strong and weak features. In the novel, on a philosophical level, the inferiority, insufficiency of both opposites and the impossibility of their harmonious combination are revealed.

In the literature of the 1870s, the same prose genres dominate as in the literature of the previous century, but new trends appear in them. The epic tendencies in narrative literature are weakening, there is an outflow of literary forces from the novel, to small genres - a story, an essay, a story. Dissatisfaction with the traditional novel was a characteristic phenomenon in literature and criticism in the 1870s. It would be wrong, however, to assume that the genre of the novel entered a period of crisis during these years. The work of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin serves as an eloquent refutation of this opinion. However, in the 1970s, the novel underwent an internal restructuring: the tragic beginning sharply intensified; this trend is associated with a heightened interest in the spiritual problems of the individual and its internal conflicts. Novelists pay special attention to a personality that has reached its full development, but is put face to face with the fundamental problems of being, deprived of support, experiencing deep discord with people and with itself (“Anna Karenina” by L. Tolstoy, “Demons” and “The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky ).

In the short prose of the 1870s, a craving for allegorical and parable forms is revealed. Particularly indicative in this regard is the prose of N.S. Leskov, the flowering of his work falls precisely on this decade. He acted as an innovative artist, combining the principles of realistic writing into a single whole with the conventions of traditional folk poetic techniques, with an appeal to the style and genres of ancient Russian literature. Leskov's skill was compared with icon painting and ancient architecture, the writer was called an "isographer" - and not without reason. Gorky called the gallery of original folk types painted by Leskov “the iconostasis of the righteous and saints” of Russia. Leskov introduced into the sphere of artistic representation such layers folk life, which before him were hardly touched upon in Russian literature (the life of the clergy, the bourgeoisie, the Old Believers and other strata of the Russian provinces). In the depiction of various social strata, Leskov masterfully used the forms of a tale, whimsically mixing the author's and folk points of view.

The literary movement of the 1870s, important changes in the style and poetics of prose genres, necessarily prepared a new period in the development of Russian realistic prose.

The 1880s are a strange, intermediate time in the history of Russian literature and Russian social thought. On the one hand, they were marked by a complete crisis of the populist ideology and the mood of pessimism that it caused, the absence of a common idea; “Sleep and darkness reigned in the hearts” - as A.A. Blok in the poem "Retribution". However, it was precisely the exhaustion of the revolutionary ideology of the 1860s and 1870s that led to the formation of a new attitude towards reality. The 1980s was a time of radical reassessment of the history and culture of the past. Fundamentally new for Russian culture was the orientation towards the calm, peaceful development of society; for the first time, conservatism became an important part of the national consciousness. In society, an attitude began to take shape not to remake the world (which prevailed in the 1860s and 70s), but to change (self-change) a person (F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy, Vl.S. Solovyov and K. N. Leontiev, N. S. Leskov and V. M. Garshin, V. G. Korolenko and A. P. Chekhov).

The 1880s were perceived by contemporaries as an independent period, opposed in their minds to the sixties and seventies. The specificity of the period was associated with the idea of ​​the end of the era of the Russian "classics", with a sense of the boundary, the transition of time. The eighties sum up the development of Russian classical realism. The end of the period does not coincide with 1889, but rather should be attributed to the mid-1890s, when a new generation of writers announced itself and trends associated with the emergence of symbolism appeared. As a literary event that ended the 1880s, one can consider the publication in 1893 of a brochure by D.S. Merezhkovsky "On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature", which became the program document of literature and criticism at the turn of the century. At the same time, this document is a starting point new era in the history of Russian literature. We can say that Russian literature of the XIX century. ends in 1893, its last period chronologically covers the years 1880-1893.

Russian literature of the 1880s is the literature of realism, but qualitatively changed. Classical realism of the 1830-70s strove for a synthesis in artistic research and depiction of life, focused on the knowledge of the whole, the universe in all its diversity and inconsistency. Realism in the 80s proved unable to give a clear and meaningful picture of being from the point of view of some general universal idea. But at the same time in Russian literature there is an intense search for a new generalized view of life. Russian literature of the 1880s interacts with religious-philosophical and ethical concepts; writers appear in whose work philosophical ideas find their expression in artistic, literary form (Vl. Soloviev, K.N. Leontiev, early V.V. Rozanov). The realistic setting in the work of the classics of Russian realism is changing; prose by I.S. Turgenev is saturated with mysterious, irrational motives; in the work of L.N. Tolstoy's realism is gradually but steadily transforming into realism of a different kind, densely surrounded by moralistic and preachy journalism. The most characteristic feature of the literary process of the 80-90s is the almost complete disappearance of the genre form of the novel and the flourishing of small epic genres: story, essay, story. The novel assumes a generalizing view of life, and in the 1980s life empiricism, a fact of reality, comes to the fore. Hence the emergence of naturalistic tendencies in Russian prose - in the work of second-line fiction writers (P.D. Boborykin, D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak), partly even A.P. Chekhov, who is included in the literature of the 1880s as the author of humorous stories, skits and parodies. Chekhov, perhaps more acutely than any of the artists, feels the exhaustion of the old artistic forms - and subsequently it is he who is destined to become a true innovator in the field of new means of artistic expression.

Simultaneously with the naturalistic tendencies in the prose of the 1880s, the desire for expressiveness, for the search for more capacious forms of artistic expression, is intensifying. The desire for expressiveness leads to the predominance of the subjective principle not only in lyric poetry, which is experiencing a new flowering in the 80-90s, but also in narrative prose genres (V.M. Garshin, V.G. Korolenko). A distinctive feature of the prose of the 80s is the vigorous development of mass fiction and mass dramaturgy. However, in the same years he creates his own latest plays A.N. Ostrovsky: "sad" comedies "Slaves", "Talents and Admirers", "Handsome Man", "Guilty Without Guilt" and L.N. Tolstoy (folk drama "The Power of Darkness", satirical comedy "The Fruits of Enlightenment"). Finally, at the end of the 1880s, Chekhov began to reform the dramatic genre (the plays Ivanov, Leshy, later reworked into the play Uncle Vanya).

The poetry of the 80s occupies a more modest place in the general literary process than prose and dramaturgy. It is dominated by pessimistic or even tragic notes. However, it is in the poetry of the 80s that the artistic tendencies of the new era, leading to the formation of the aesthetics of symbolism, most clearly appear.

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Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953) is the last Russian classic, but new Russian literature begins with him.

Received the Pushkin Prize for translating the text of the Song of Goyate.

"Antonov apples" 1900, "Mr. from San Francisco", "Easy breathing" - Bunin's trilogy about the meaning of being. Innovation is determined by the fact that the artist moves away from the study of class contradictions. The focus is on the civilizational conflict, the world of people in general. Bunin believed that in "Antonov apples" he presented new principles for creating a literary image. The ideological and artistic space allows us to pose completely different problems. "Antonov apples" are expressed:

plotless plot;

in this story, Bunin has the opportunity to describe the "crystal" silence; a special subject of study was the state of sadness, "great and hopeless";

the unique rhythm of Bunin's prose;

"brocade" language.

Bunin connected the secret of life with the motive of love and with the motive of death, but he sees the ideal solution to the problems of love and death in the past (peace, harmony, when a person felt himself a part of nature).

In the 20th century, Bunin in The Gentleman from San Francisco reveals the theme of death, which he began to think about from childhood. I express the idea that money gives only the illusion of life.

8. The literary situation of the early twentieth century.

Modern (The general name for various trends in art of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, which proclaimed a break with realism, the rejection of old forms and the search for new aesthetic principles.) - the interpretation of being

Lyric poetry (Sensitivity in feelings, in moods; softness and subtlety of the emotional beginning)

The idea of ​​art synthesis

Russian literature of the late XIX - early XX centuries. (1893 -1917) - rather short, but a very important period, independent in its meaning, in the history of Russian literature. In October 1917 Russian culture has undergone a tragic cataclysm. The literary process of that time is characterized by unprecedented tension, inconsistency, and the clash of the most diverse artistic tendencies. Not only in Russia, but throughout the world culture, a new modernist aesthetics, which sharply contrasted its philosophical and artistic program, its new worldview with the aesthetics of the past, which included essentially all the classical heritage of world culture.

A distinctive feature of the culture of the 1st quarter of the 20th century is an unprecedented one since Pushkin's time. flowering of poetry and above all - lyric poetry, development of a completely new poetic language, new artistic imagery. The very concept of the "Silver Age" owes its origin to the new rise of poetic art. This rise is a direct consequence of the general process associated with search for more capacious means of artistic expression. The literature of the beginning of the century as a whole is characterized by the element of lyricism. At the turn of the century, lyricism becomes one of the most effective means of revealing the worldview of the author and the man of modern times portrayed by him. The flowering of poetry in this period is a natural consequence of deep processes in the history of Russian literature and culture, it is associated primarily with modernism as the leading artistic direction of the era.

Article by V.I. Lenin "Party Organization and Party Literature" (1905) with the thesis that that literary work should be part of the general proletarian cause- followed from the principles proclaimed by "real criticism" and carried to its logical end. The article provoked a sharp rebuff in the literary and philosophical thought of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century; Lenin's opponents were D. Merezhkovsky, D. Filosofov, N. Berdyaev, V. Bryusov, who was one of the first to react with the article "Freedom of Speech", which appeared at the same time in November 1905 in the journal "Scales". V. Bryusov defended the already established in the decadent environment beliefs about the autonomy of literature as the art of speech and the freedom of artistic creativity.

The literature of the turn of the century entered into close relationships with religion, philosophy, and other forms of art, which also experienced a revival at that time: with painting, theater, and music. No wonder the idea of ​​the synthesis of arts occupied the minds of poets and artists, composers and philosophers. These are the most general trends in the development of literature and culture in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

During the late XIX - XX centuries. Russian literature includes a group of young writers who continue high traditions of classical realism. This is V.G. Korolenko, A.I. Kuprin, M. Gorky,I.A. Bunin,B. Zaitsev, I. Shmelev, V. Veresaev, L. Andreev. In the works of these writers, it is peculiar reflected the interaction of the realistic method with the new trends of the era . The bright and clear talent of V.G. Korolenko was distinguished by his attraction to romantic motifs, plots, and images. The prose and dramaturgy of Leonid Andreev more and more experienced the influence of expressionist poetics. The lyrical prose of B. Zaitsev, his plotless miniatures gave critics reason to talk about impressionistic features in his creative method. Fame I.A. Bunin was brought first of all by his story "The Village", in which he gave a harsh image of modern folk life, sharply arguing with the poeticization of the peasantry, coming from the Turgenev tradition. At the same time, the metaphorical figurativeness of Bunin's prose, the associative connection of details and motifs, bring it closer to the poetics of symbolism. Early work M. Gorky connected with the romantic tradition. Revealing the life of Russia, an acutely dramatic spiritual state modern man, Gorky created a picture of life in common with Kuprin, Bunin, Remizov, Sergeev-Tsynsky.

Modernist and avant-garde movements

The word "modernism" comes from the French. moderne - "newest". The aesthetics of realism meant reflection of the surrounding reality in the works of the artist in its typical features ; aesthetics of modernism brought to the fore the creative will of the artist, the possibility of creating many subjective interpretations of being. Avant-gardism is a private and extreme manifestation of modernist culture; The motto of the avant-garde could be the words of Pablo Picasso: "I depict the world not as I see it, but as I think it." The avant-garde believed that vital material can be deformed by the artist to the ground. Avant-garde art meant first of all fundamental break with traditions of the XIX V. Avant-gardism in Russian culture reflected in poetry futurists and in similar searches in the field of painting (K.Malevich, N.Goncharova) and theater (V.Meyerhold).

"Verily, that was the golden age of our literature,

the period of her innocence and bliss! .. "

M. A. Antonovich

M. Antonovich in his article called the "golden age of literature" the beginning of the 19th century - the period of creativity of A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol. Subsequently, this definition began to characterize the literature of the entire 19th century - up to the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy.

What are the main features of Russian classical literature of this period?

Fashionable at the beginning of the century, sentimentalism gradually fades into the background - the formation of romanticism begins, and from the middle of the century realism rules the ball.

New types of heroes appear in literature: the "little man", who most often dies under the pressure of the foundations accepted in society, and the "extra man" - this is a string of images, starting with Onegin and Pechorin.

Continuing the traditions of the satirical image, proposed by M. Fonvizin, in the literature of the 19th century satirical image vices of modern society becomes one of the central motives. Often satire takes on grotesque forms. Vivid examples- Gogol's "Nose" or "The History of a City" by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Another distinguishing feature of the literature of this period is an acute social orientation. Writers and poets are increasingly turning to socio-political topics, often plunging into the field of psychology. This leitmotif permeates the works of I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy. Appears new form- Russian realistic novel, with its deep psychologism, the most severe criticism of reality, irreconcilable enmity with the existing foundations and loud calls for renewal.

Well main reason, which prompted many critics to call the 19th century the golden age of Russian culture: the literature of this period, despite a number of unfavorable factors, had a powerful influence on the development of world culture as a whole. Absorbing all the best that world literature offered, Russian literature was able to remain original and unique.

Russian writers of the 19th century

V.A. Zhukovsky- Pushkin's mentor and his Teacher. It is Vasily Andreevich who is considered the founder of Russian romanticism. It can be said that Zhukovsky "prepared" the ground for Pushkin's bold experiments, since he was the first to expand the scope of the poetic word. After Zhukovsky, the era of the democratization of the Russian language began, which was so brilliantly continued by Pushkin.

Selected Poems:

A.S. Griboyedov went down in history as the author of one work. But what! Masterpiece! Phrases and quotes from the comedy "Woe from Wit" have long become winged, and the work itself is considered the first realistic comedy in the history of Russian literature.

Analysis of the work:

A.S. Pushkin. He was called differently: A. Grigoriev claimed that "Pushkin is our everything!", F. Dostoevsky "the great and incomprehensible Forerunner", and Emperor Nicholas I admitted that, in his opinion, Pushkin is "the most clever man in Russia". Simply put, this is Genius.

Pushkin's greatest merit is that he radically changed Russian literary language, saving him from pretentious abbreviations, like "young, breg, sweet", from the ridiculous "marshmallows", "Psyche", "Cupids", so revered in grandiloquent elegies, from borrowings, which were then so abundant in Russian poetry. Pushkin brought colloquial vocabulary, craft slang, elements of Russian folklore to the pages of printed publications.

A. N. Ostrovsky also pointed out another important achievement of this brilliant poet. Before Pushkin, Russian literature was imitative, stubbornly imposing traditions and ideals alien to our people. Pushkin, on the other hand, "gave courage to the Russian writer to be Russian", "revealed the Russian soul". In his stories and novels, for the first time, the theme of the morality of the social ideals of that time is so vividly raised. And the main character, with Pushkin's light hand, is now becoming an ordinary "little man" - with his thoughts and hopes, desires and character.

Analysis of works:

M.Yu. Lermontov- bright, mysterious, with a touch of mysticism and an incredible thirst for will. All his work is a unique fusion of romanticism and realism. Moreover, both directions do not oppose at all, but, as it were, complement each other. This man went down in history as a poet, writer, playwright and artist. He wrote 5 plays: the most famous is the drama "Masquerade".

And among prose works, the real diamond of creativity was the novel "A Hero of Our Time" - the first realistic novel in prose in the history of Russian literature, where for the first time the writer tries to trace the "dialectics of the soul" of his hero, mercilessly exposing him to psychological analysis. This pioneering creative method Lermontov in the future will be used by many Russian and foreign writers.

Selected works:

N.V. Gogol known as a writer and playwright, but it is no coincidence that one of his most famous works - "Dead Souls" is considered a poem. There is no other such Master of the word in world literature. Gogol's language is melodious, incredibly bright and figurative. This was most clearly manifested in his collection Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka.

On the other hand, N.V. Gogol is considered the founder of the "natural school", with its satire bordering on the grotesque, accusatory motifs and ridicule of human vices.

Selected works:

I.S. Turgenev- the greatest Russian novelist who established the canons of the classic novel. He continues the traditions established by Pushkin and Gogol. He often refers to the theme of "an extra person", trying to convey the relevance and significance of social ideas through the fate of his hero.

Turgenev's merit also lies in the fact that he became the first propagandist of Russian culture in Europe. This is a prose writer who opened the world of the Russian peasantry, intelligentsia and revolutionaries to foreign countries. And the string of female images in his novels became the pinnacle of the writer's skill.

Selected works:

A.N. Ostrovsky- an outstanding Russian playwright. I. Goncharov most accurately expressed Ostrovsky's merits, recognizing him as the founder of the Russian folk theater. The plays of this writer became a "school of life" for the playwrights of the next generation. And the Moscow Maly Theater, where most of the plays of this talented writer were staged, proudly calls itself the "Ostrovsky House".

Selected works:

I.A. Goncharov continued to develop the traditions of the Russian realistic novel. The author of the famous trilogy, who, like no one else, managed to describe major vice Russian people are lazy. With the light hand of the writer, the term "Oblomovism" also appeared.

Selected works:

L.N. Tolstoy- a real block of Russian literature. His novels are recognized as the pinnacle of the art of novel writing. The style of presentation and the creative method of L. Tolstoy are still considered the standard of the writer's skill. And his ideas of humanism had a huge impact on the development of humanistic ideas throughout the world.

Selected works:

N.S. Leskov- a talented successor to the traditions of N. Gogol. He made a huge contribution to the development of new genre forms in literature, such as pictures from life, rhapsodies, incredible events.

Selected works:

N.G. Chernyshevsky- an outstanding writer and literary critic who proposed his theory of the aesthetics of the relationship of art to reality. This theory became the reference for the literature of the next few generations.

Selected works:

F.M. Dostoevsky is a brilliant writer whose psychological novels are known all over the world. Dostoevsky is often called the forerunner of such trends in culture as existentialism and surrealism.

Selected works:

M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin- the greatest satirist, who brought the art of denunciation, ridicule and parody to the heights of skill.

Selected works:

A.P. Chekhov. With this name, historians traditionally complete the era of the golden age of Russian literature. Chekhov was recognized throughout the world during his lifetime. His short stories have become a benchmark for short story writers. And Chekhov's plays had a huge impact on the development of world drama.

Selected works:

By the end of the 19th century, the traditions of critical realism began to fade away. In a society permeated through and through with pre-revolutionary moods, mystical moods, partly even decadent ones, have come into fashion. They became the forerunner of the emergence of a new literary trend - symbolism and marked the beginning of a new period in the history of Russian literature - the silver age of poetry.

CENTURIES
Development of the Russian
literature and
culture
in the second
half of XIX

At the beginning of the 19th century, the process was completed
education of the Russian national
literature and creation of Russian
literary language.
played an important role in this process
A. S. Pushkin, he was the ancestor
new direction in Russian literature
- realistic.
Further development of literature
led to a critical
realism.
Its origin is associated with the name
N.V. Gogol, and the heyday falls on
second half of the 19th century.

The 60s of the 19th century entered
Russian history as a period
the greatest rise
social thought and
public struggle.
Russia's defeat in the Crimean
war, the rise of peasant revolts
forced the emperor
Alexander II to recognize that "it is better
release from above than wait,
while overthrown from below.
The abolition of serfdom and
the rise of capitalism
major socio-economic developments
considered time.

The social upsurge of the post-reform period was the source of the incredible flourishing of Russian science and art.

THE PUBLIC RISE OF THE POST-REFORM
OF THE PERIOD WAS THE SOURCE OF INCREDIBLE
THE FLOWERING OF RUSSIAN SCIENCE AND ART.
In the chronological table of this period you will see
talent constellation:
artists ‒ G. G. Myasoedov, I. N. Kramskoy, N. N. Ge,
V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. E.
Repin, V. A. Serov and others;
composers ‒ M. A. Balakirev, A. P. Borodin, Ts. A.
Cui, M. P. Mussorgsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov and
others;
writers and poets - A. N. Ostrovsky, I. S. Turgenev,
N. A. Nekrasov, A. A. Fet, F. I. Tyutchev, L. N. Tolstoy,
F. M. Dostoevsky, N. S. Leskov, A. V. Druzhinin,
P. V. Annenkov, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and others.

"New people" in Russian literature

"NEW PEOPLE" IN RUSSIAN LITERATURE
Describing the 1960s and 1970s
XIX century, L. N. Tolstoy
emphasized:
"All
This
overturned
And
only
fits in."
IN
post-reform era
arena of social struggle
came out
"new
People"
‒
raznochinskaya
intelligentsia,
nihilists.

according to the dictionary of S. I. Ozhegov:

ACCORDING TO THE DICTIONARY OF S.I. OZHOGOV:
nihilist - free thinker
man, intellectual raznochintsy,
sharp
negative
pertaining to
To
bourgeois noble
traditions
And
customs, to serfdom
ideology."
Raznochinets - "in the XIX century in
Russia:
intellectual,
Not
belonging to the nobility
from other classes
estates".

So the "new people" were
from poor families,
were well educated and
were engaged
intellectual
labor, but the main thing is that they
related,
‒
rejection
existing
V
Russia
order.
They believed in the power of reason
looked at the natural sciences
as the foundation of all knowledge.
This type of hero is depicted in
novel by N. G. Chernyshevsky “What
do?" and in the novel by I.S.
Turgenev "Fathers and Sons".

At the first acquaintance with the main character of the novel "Fathers and Sons" Bazarov, I. S. Turgenev draws a portrait of a commoner.

AT THE FIRST ACQUAINTANCE WITH THE MAIN CHARACTER OF THE NOVEL
"FATHERS AND CHILDREN" BY BAZAROV I. S. TURGENEV DRAWS
PORTRAIT OF A RAZNOCHIN.
Bazarov is a typical representative
"new
of people",
which
before
minimum simplified behavior,
everyday
life,
care
behind
appearance.
By
words
contemporary
commoner
"...must
was
dress as simply as possible
simple environment, most
dirty
work
do
By
opportunities for yourself - one
word,
break
co
everyone
ruinous
habits
vaccinated
rich
bureaucracy and nobility."

In the second half of the 19th century they were replaced
various
professional
associations of raznochintsy; meetings at
editors of magazines and newspapers; theater
figures; various student circles
interests, as well as circles of specialists in
certain area of ​​science.
In circles, groups, at parties, they argued about
future fate of Russia, demanded
respect for the individual, her human
dignity, upholding freedom of speech.

10.

A new hero of literature since the 1860s.
became an acting hero.
Unlike "superfluous people" (such as Onegin and
Pechorin: smart, talented, but not found
place in life) heroes of N. G. Chernyshevsky,
I. S. Turgeneva, I. A. Goncharova (Stolz)
hardworking, they care not so much about personal,
how many public problems.
However, these heroes did not find answers to
issues of concern to contemporaries. Russian
literature has not created an image of a person
active,
energetic
And
busy
specific useful work.

11. Problematics of works of art

PROBLEMS OF ARTISTIC
WORKS
In the same years there was a sharp struggle between:
Slavophiles
who did not consider it possible
imitate the West, as Russia
has its own history, culture, ideals
Westerners
(supporters use
European experience)
And
V. G. Belinsky,
A. I. Herzen,
I. S. Turgenev
A. I. Khomyakov,
K. S. Aksakov
A. N. Ostrovsky,
F. I. Tyutchev,
N. S. Leskov

12.

Democratization
literature
led
To
exacerbation of the peasant theme that arose in
works by N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev
and etc.
The literature of the 1860s also raised women's
topic, and the position of a Russian woman
considered in different aspects - in the family, in
public life.
Writers were interested in life and peasant women
(N. A. Nekrasov), and merchants (A. N. Ostrovsky, N. S.
Leskov), and noblewomen (L. N. Tolstoy, I. S.
Turgenev), etc.

13.

Russian literature of the 1860s
trying hard to find an answer
the question "what to do?".
The first on him in the eponymous
novel tried to answer N. G.
Chernyshevsky.
Work
received
subtitle "From stories about
new people", in which the author
stated its main theme.
Chernyshevsky highlighted the main
Problems
public,
political
And
moral
life of Russia.

14. Roman in Russian literature

NOVEL IN RUSSIAN LITERATURE
Novel - literary
genre
epic
works
big
forms,
V
which
narration
focused on destiny
individuals in their
respect
To
to the world around
formation, development
characters
And
self-awareness.

15.

Speaking about the genre specifics of literature
second half of the 19th century, then were presented and
monumental novels:
social,
psychological,
philosophical (I. S. Turgeneva, I. A. Goncharova, L. N.
Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky),
story,
stories (by N. S. Leskov and A. P. Chekhov),
dramatic works (A. N. Ostrovsky and
A.P. Chekhov).
However, first of all, this is the heyday
"Russian novel".
In the 1860s-1970s, the best examples were created
of this genre.

16.

I. S. Turgenev - "Rudin" (1855), "Nest of Nobility"
(1859), "On the Eve" (1860), "Fathers and Sons" (1862),
"Smoke" (1867), "New" (1877);
I. A. Goncharov - "Oblomov" (1859), "Cliff" (1869);
F. M. Dostoevsky - "Humiliated and Insulted"
(1861), "Crime and Punishment" (1866), "The Idiot"
(1869), "Demons" (1871), "Teenager" (1875), "Brothers
Karamazovs" (1880);
N. S. Leskov - “Nowhere” (1864), “Cathedrals” (1872);
L. N. Tolstoy - "War and Peace" (1869), "Anna
Karenina" (1877).

17.

The novels of I. S. Turgenev reflect the spiritual
mood of the time. He is one of the first
portrayed a new hero - a commoner democrat, a nihilist, and in his works
the ideal of the active fighter emerged.
Turgenev created a whole gallery of images
Russian women - advanced views,
deeply moral high impulses,
ready for the challenge.

18.

Discovery in world art culture
became
image
L.
N.
Tolstoy
psychological portrait in motion and
contradictions.
Tolstoy through psychological analysis
showed for the first time in Russian literature that
Personality is changeable, just like life is changeable.
Human
smart, educated capable
spill the beans; kind may
to show cruelty, heartlessness.
The work of L. N. Tolstoy is an attempt to catch
"fluid substance" of the spiritual life of the characters.

19.

Huge contribution to the development of new
Russian novel was introduced by F. M.
Dostoevsky.
studying
character
"private"
a man who lives in a narrow
world,
Fedor
Mikhailovich
depicted what a titanic
struggle
going on
V
soul
person making a choice
between good and evil.
The heroes of Dostoevsky are looking for Truth, for
her insights pay off
suffering.

20. Development of dramaturgy

DEVELOPMENT OF DRAMA
The development of Russian dramaturgy in the second half of the 19th century is connected with
first of all with the name of A. N. Ostrovsky.
Continuing the traditions of D.I. Fonvizin, A.S.
Griboyedova, N. V. Gogol, A. N. Ostrovsky
created national dramaturgy, opened
new heroes and new conflicts that
reflect the events of Russian reality
that time.
They wrote comedies (“Not all to the cat
carnival”, “Truth is good, but happiness
better"), psychological dramas ("The Last
victim",
"Dowry")
social dramas (“Poverty is not a vice”,
"Thunderstorm"), satirical comedies ("Forest",
"Wolves and Sheep"), historical dramas
(“Kozma Zakharyich Minin-Sukhoruk”, “Dream on
Volga"), a fairy tale ("The Snow Maiden").

21.

An invaluable contribution to the development of Russian drama
introduced by A.P. Chekhov (late 19th - early 20th century).
Chekhov set himself the main goal of bringing
drama to reality.
There are no villains and righteous people in life, there
the characters of people are smaller, but more complex, and therefore
there is no such clear division.
That is why it is enough to solve the hero
difficult.
It does not manifest itself in actions (just no
major deeds), there is no action as such,
there is no goal towards which the hero is moving, what is he
wants to achieve.
Speech
heroes
practically
Not
individualized.
There are no individuals here, everything is here
smoothed, blurry, as in reality.
Chekhov said that in life everything is simpler outwardly,
but much harder internally

22. Arguments about art

DISPUTES ABOUT ART
In the second half of the 19th century, there was a struggle in Russian literature
Pushkin and Gogol directions.
Writers - Pushkin's heirs demanded independence
literature from the authorities and the people, the creator was represented by God. This
the literary movement of the second half of the 19th century was called
pure art.
The writers of this trend considered for themselves a program
A. S. Pushkin's poem "The Poet and the Crowd", especially
his final lines:
Not for worldly excitement,
Not for self-interest, not for battles,
We are born to inspire
For sweet sounds and prayers.
The ideologists of "pure art" were V.V. Druzhinin, P.V.
Annenkov, V. V. Botkin; poets A. N. Maikov, A. K. Tolstoy, A. A.
Pleshcheev and others.

23.

the opposite
point
vision
expressed by the followers of Gogol.
In the poem "Dead Souls" (the beginning of the first
volumes) N.V. Gogol compared two types
writers: creator of art for art's sake
and a writer-denunciator, attributing himself to
the second type.
His ideas were supported by V. G. Belinsky,
who believed that “taking away from art
the right to serve the public interest
- means not to elevate, but to humiliate him,
because it means to deprive him of himself
living force, i.e. thoughts, make it
subject
some
sybarist
(sybarite - idle, spoiled
luxury
Human)
enjoyment,
a toy of idle sloths ... ".

24. Journalism

JOURNALISM
In the second half of the 19th century in Russia
journalism began to flourish.
Magazines
"Contemporary",
"Bell",
"Russian
word",
"Spark",
"Russian
Bulletin”, “Bulletin of Europe” and others
played a huge role in the development of Russian
literature and art.
"Contemporary"
under
leadership
N. A. Nekrasova became a printed organ
revolutionary democrats.
Political and critical departments in
this
magazine
supervised
N. G. Chernyshevsky, he acted as a critic
and publicist.

25.

In 1856, N. G. Chernyshevsky introduced
editorial
"Contemporary"
N.A. Dobrolyubova.
Articles
Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov made
magazine "Sovremennik" popular in
among the progressive people of Russia.
IN
articles
Dobrolyubova
developed
And
many
theoretical questions of aesthetics and
literary criticism.
In 1866 the magazine was banned
censorship.
Ideas of "Sovremennik" N. A. Nekrasov
continued in the magazine "Domestic
notes "(1868).

26.

Opposition to
these magazines were the magazines "Russian
Bulletin", "Russian Word", etc.
Gain
roles
literature
V
social life led to
is the development of criticism.
Literary criticism of the second half
XIX century was represented by the names
N.
G.
Chernyshevsky,
N.
A.
Dobrolyubova, A. A. Grigorieva, A. V.
Druzhinina, N. N. Strakhova, D. I.
Pisarev, I. A. Antonovich and others and
had a huge impact on the development
literature.

27. Poetry of the second half of the 19th century

POETRY OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY
From the contradictions between "Gogol" and
"Pushkin" directions in Russian
literature of the second half of the 19th century
there was a confrontation between two poetic
camps:
"pure art" and civil literature.

28.

Under the conditional definition of "pure art" or
"art for art's sake" can be combined
the work of a number of original Russian poets.
It is believed that at the head of this direction in Russian
poetry were F. I. Tyutchev and A. A. Fet, to the representatives
"pure art" include Ya. P. Polonsky, A. N.
Apukhtin, A. N. Maikov, L. A. Meya, N. F. Shcherbin.
These
poets
united
general
traditional
the idea of ​​poetry, which is higher than ordinary life,
momentary problems, social and political
questions. However, it would be wrong to think that poetry
"pure art" was far from life. Her sphere is
spiritual world of man, the world of feelings, philosophical and
aesthetic searches, the search for answers to eternal questions
being.

29.

Representatives of "pure art" saw themselves in
the role of defenders of genuine creativity,
independent of fashion, momentary ideas and
political passions, claimed that poetry
cannot but possess spiritual beauty and
moral perfection because it
divine in nature, and the poet carries
responsibility to God himself.

30.

Representatives of "pure art" tried
comprehend serious philosophical aspects
being; created wonderful poems
love; contributed to the development of the Russian
lyrics.
Wonderful, highly patriotic lines about
Russia F. I. Tyutchev to this day are
bright characteristic of the Russian original
character:
Russia cannot be understood with the mind,
Do not measure with a common yardstick;
She has a special become -
One can only believe in Russia.

31.

Supporters of the camp of revolutionary democrats
declared themselves resolute opponents so
called "pure art".
Civic poetry in Russian literature II
half of the 19th century is represented primarily
the work of N. A. Nekrasov, as well as V. S. Kurochkin,
D. D. Minaeva, N. P. Ogareva, A. N. Pleshcheeva, A. M.
Zhemchuzhnikov, who were
conscious
spokesmen for contemporary political and
social sentiment.
Just like prose writers, representatives of the "natural
schools", they used material in poetry
modern reality.

32.

In the field of poetry, Nekrasov did the same thing that Gogol did in
prose, - expanded the national specifics
works, brought literature closer to the people, made
Russian peasants as heroes of their poetry.
Democratization of Nekrasov's lyrics
influenced
on
style,
language,
metrorhythmic features of it
poetry.
The poet created varieties of genres:
elegy on social topics,
parodic romance and ode; introduced into
literature
acute social
poetry and lyric
poem, review poem, peasant
epic. In his works often
combines several traditional
genres.

33.

A special place in the controversy between
representatives of "pure art" and
civil
poetry
belongs
A.A. Grigoriev, who believed that
the existence and struggle of these two
directions - a natural process
development of post-Pushkin literature
period.
"The true poets, all the same, they said
whether they: "I'm not a poet - I'm a citizen", or:
“We are born for inspiration, for
sweet sounds and prayers, ”they served and
serve one thing: the ideal, differing only in
forms of expression of their service.

34. Outcome

TOTAL
Russian poetry of the second half of the 19th century
all the variety of topics, ideas, directions
became a manifestation of the spirit of the Russian people.
Thus, the development of literature in
the second half of the 19th century went according to different
directions, and put forward a whole galaxy
the greatest Russian poets and writers, whose
names have become world famous. Literature abstractThe theme of the "little man" in Russian literatureXIXcentury. ContentsThe theme of the "little man" in Russian literature. A.S. Pushkin "The Stationmaster". N.V. Gogol "The Overcoat". F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment". "Little Man" and time. List of used literature.

The term "little man" is a true long-liver in school and university literary criticism. There is a semantic and emotional stereotype that accompanies this expression.

Forgotten by everyone humiliated people, their life, small joys and big troubles for a long time seemed insignificant, unworthy of attention. Such people and such an attitude towards them gave rise to the era. Cruel times and tsarist injustice forced the "little people" to withdraw into themselves. Suffering, they lived an imperceptible life and also imperceptibly died. But just such people sometimes, by the will of circumstances, obeying the cry of the soul, began to grumble against the mighty of this world, to appeal for justice. Petty officials, stationmasters, "little people" who had gone mad, came out of the shadows against their will.

One of the first writers who discovered the world of "little people" was N.M. Karamzin. The greatest influence on subsequent literature was Karamzin's story " Poor Lisa. The author laid the foundation for a huge cycle of works about "little people", took the first step into the previously unknown topic of A.S. Pushkin was the next writer, in the sphere creative attention which began to include all of vast Russia, its expanses, the life of the villages. For the first time, Russian literature so poignantly and clearly showed the distortion of the personality by a hostile environment. For the first time, it turned out to be possible not only to dramatically depict the contradictory behavior of a person, but also to condemn the evil and inhuman forces of society - Samson Vyrin judges this society. Pushkin's artistic discovery was directed to the future - it was paving the way for Russian literature into the unknown.

This theme reached its greatest apogee in the works of N.V. Gogol. (C) Information published on the website
Gogol opens the world of officials to the reader in his Petersburg Tales.

N.V. Gogol, who revealed the true side in his "Petersburg Tales" and other stories metropolitan life and the lives of officials, vividly and weightily showed the possibilities of the “natural school” in transforming and changing a person’s view of the world and the fate of “little people”. Gogol's critical realism revealed and helped to develop this theme for the writers of the future like no other. Gogol stood for deep and original criticism, which should be "a true representative of the opinions" of his era.

In the Petersburg Notes of 1836, Gogol puts forward the idea of ​​a socially saturated art from a realistic position, which notices the common elements of our society, moving its springs. He gives a remarkably deep definition of realistic art, following romanticism, embracing the old and the new with its effective look. Gogol's realism contains the disclosure of the complexity of life, its movement, the birth of a new one. A realistic view is affirmed in the work of N.V. Gogol in the second half of the 1930s.

"Petersburg Tales", especially "The Overcoat", were of great importance for all subsequent literature, the establishment of a socio-humanistic direction and a natural school in it. Herzen considered The Overcoat to be a colossal work by N.V. Gogol, and F.M. Dostoevsky said: “We all came out of Gogol's Overcoat. Creativity N.V. Gogol greatly enriched Russian literature.

The development of the “little man” theme has its own logic, which we will try to follow in the future. I stopped at the following works Russian classics: "The Stationmaster" A.S. Pushkin, "Overcoat" N.V. Gogol, "Crime and Punishment" by F.M. Dostoevsky.

Petersburg and Moscow, in the work of A.S. Pushkin, opened not only from a luxurious entrance, but also through the narrow doors of poor people's houses. The proof of this was his "Tale of Belkin", in the center of which - provincial Russia. Here is the "martyr of the fourteenth grade" collegiate registrar, the caretaker of one of the thousand small postal stations, the poor official Samson Vyrin, and the retired hussar officer Silvio, and the rich nobles, and the impoverished.

Disclosure of social and artistic value"The Stationmaster" laid the foundation for F.M. Dostoevsky, he expressed judgments about the realism of Pushkin's story, about its cognitive significance, pointed out the typical image of the poor official Vyrin, the simplicity and clarity of the language of the story, noted the depth of the image of the human hero in it. tragic fate"martyr of the fourteenth class" after F.M. Dostoevsky has attracted the attention of critics more than once, who noted the humanism and democracy of Pushkin and evaluated The Stationmaster as one of the first, since the 18th century, realistic stories about a poor official.

Pushkin's choice of hero - stationmaster was not random. In the 20s of the 19th century, as is known, many moralistic essays and stories appear in Russian literature, the heroes of which are people of the “lower class”. In addition, the genre of travel is being revived. In the mid-20s, poems, poems, and essays began to appear in magazines more and more often, in which attention was paid not only to descriptions of the region, but also to meetings and conversations with the stationmaster.

In the story, three arrivals of the narrator, separated from one another by several years, organize the course of the narration, and in all three parts, as in the introduction, the narration is conducted by the narrator. But in the second, central part of the story, we hear Vyrin himself. In the words of the narrator: “Let us delve into all this carefully, and instead of indignation our heart will be filled with sincere sympathy,” a generalization is given, it is said about hard labor and the position of the stationmaster not of any one tract, but of all, at any time of the year, day and night. Excited lines with rhetorical questions ("who did not curse ...", "who in a moment of anger?", etc.), ᴨȇstruggling with the demand to be fair, to enter the position of "a real martyr of the fourteenth grade" let us understand what Pushkin sympathetically says about the hard work of these people.

The first meeting in 1816 is described by the narrator with obvious sympathy for his father, for his daughter, the beautiful Duna, and for their well-established life. Vyrin - the image of "fresh, good man about fifty, in a long green frock coat with three medals on faded ribbons, ”an old soldier who, probably, walked for about 30 years during military campaigns, he buried his wife in 1812, and only a few years he had to live with his beloved daughter, and a new misfortune crashed down on him. The stationmaster Samson Vyrin lived in poverty, his desires were elementary - with work full of insults and humiliation, he earns a livelihood, does not complain about anything and is pleased with fate. The trouble that breaks into this private world, then - a young hussar who secretly takes away his daughter Dunya to Petersburg. Grief has shaken him, but has not yet broken him. The story about Vyrin's fruitless attempts to fight Minsky, after he begged for a vacation and went to St. Petersburg as a schoolboy, is given just as sparingly as the story about Vyrin's hero, but by other means. Four small, but full of vital truth pictures of Vyrin's arrival are drawn in conditions of social and class inequality typical situation- the position of the disenfranchised, the weak and the "right" of the strong, those in power. The first picture: An old soldier in the role of a petitioner to an indifferent, important official.

Second picture: Father in the role of a petitioner ᴨȇred Minsky.

It seemed that a decisive moment had come in a person's life, when all the accumulated past grievances would raise him to rebellion in the name of holy justice. But “... tears welled up in his eyes, and he only said in a trembling voice: Your honor! ...Make such a divine favor!” Instead of protest, there was a plea, a pitiful request.

Third painting: (two days later). Again he was in front of an important lackey, who forced him out of the middle room with his chest and slammed the door under his nose.

Fourth scene: Again, ᴨȇred Minsky: “Get out!” - And, with a strong hand Grabbing the old man by the collar, he pushed him onto the stairs.

And, finally, two days later, the return from St. Petersburg to his station, it is quite understandable, too, ᴨȇshkom. And Samson Vyrin resigned himself.

The second visit of the narrator - he sees that "grief has turned a kind peasant into a frail old man." And the view of the room that did not escape the attention of the narrator (dilapidation, negligence), and the changed appearance of Vyrin (gray hair, deep wrinkles of a long unshaven face, hunched back), and the surprised exclamation: “It was exactly Samson Vyrin, but how old he is!” - all this indicates that the narrator sympathizes with the old caretaker. In the narration of the narrator himself, we hear echoes of the feelings and thoughts of Vyrin, the praying father (“He shook Dunyushkin’s hand; “I saw my poor Dunya”) and Vyrin, a trusting, helpful and disenfranchised person (“It was a pity for him to part with his kind guest”, “not understood how blindness had come upon him", "decided to come to him", "reported to his high nobility" that "an old soldier"; "thought ... he returned, but he was no longer there", , waved his hand and decided to retreat.”) Pushkin A.S. "Novels and stories", M., art. Literature, 1960 S. - 70

The role of Vyrin himself expresses his grief and sheds light on the role of Dunya in his father’s house (“His house held on; what to clean up, what to cook, “It happened that the master, no matter how angry he was, calms down with her and talks mercifully to me”).

The fate of the "little man" in the center of the author's attention and compassion for him is not only the initial, but also the final element of the author's attitude towards his heroes. It is expressed both in the introduction and in each of the three episodes, of which the last two are in opposition to the first, while each of them three parts of this lyrical-epic story are painted in various emotional tones. The third part is clearly painted in a tone of lyrical sadness - Samson Vyrin finally resigned himself, took to drink and died of grief and longing.

The question of human behavior in the story "The Stationmaster". Set sharply and dramatically. Aspiration, Pushkin shows, humiliates a person, makes life meaningless, eradicates pride, dignity, independence from the soul, turns a person into a voluntary slave, into a victim submissive to the blow of fate.

For the first time, Russian literature so poignantly and clearly showed the distortion of the personality by a hostile environment. For the first time, it was possible not only to dramatize the contradictory behavior of a person, but also to condemn the evil and inhuman forces of society. Samson Vyrin judged this society.

Pushkin's artistic attitude was directed to the future - it made way for the still unknown.

In the story, written on the topic of the stationmaster, popular in the 1920s, it is perfectly explained who the collegiate registrar is, and compassion for him is a decisive element in the author's attitude towards his hero. The story expresses a broad generalization of reality, revealed in the individual case of the tragic story of an ordinary person, "martyr of the fourteenth grade" Samson Vyrin.

Pushkin emphasizes: "... caretakers in general are peaceful people, naturally helpful, inclined to coexistence, modest in their claims to honors and not too greedy." In the image of the stationmaster, Pushkin notes not only humility, meekness, as if agreement with the fate of just a small person, but also a desire for well-being, modest joys.

God gives Samson a beautiful daughter, who is also part of the caretaker's small household, moreover, Dunya helps her father avoid all the caretaker's suffering. (C) Information published on the website
Samson Vyrin subtly uses the striking beauty of his daughter to maintain his well-being. The “little man”, being himself “overwhelmed by circumstances”, is far from being indifferent to power over his neighbors.

It is interesting to note the etymology of the Vyrins' surname: "to dig out" means to adapt, and also "vyr" is a whirlpool, a dark and disastrous whirlpool. IN AND. Dahl " Dictionary Russian language”, M., Eksmo-press, 2002, p. - 159.

So, in The Stationmaster, Pushkin shows that being a "little man" is a natural and inevitable lot; Much is revealed to the “little man”, but little is perceived by him; he strives to alleviate earthly fate, but only incurs even greater suffering; striving for the good, does not avoid sin; leaves life deeply depressed and in anticipation of the highest judgment; death itself turns out to be more desirable for him than life.

The fate of the stationmaster is a typical fate of a simple person, whose well-being can be destroyed at any moment by the rude intervention of the “powerful ones”, the ruling class, Pushkin preceded Gogol, Dostoevsky, Chekhov and their heroes with his story, saying his word about the “little” man.

After reading the stories of N.V. Gogol, we remember for a long time how an unlucky official in a cap of indefinite shape and in a blue fleece overcoat, with an old collar, stopped in front of the window to look through the whole windows of shops, shining with wonderful lights and magnificent gilding. For a long time, with envy, the official intently examined various objects and, having come to his senses, continued on his way with deep anguish and steadfast firmness. Gogol opens the reader to the world of "little people", the world of officials in his "Petersburg Tales".

The central story in this cycle is "The Overcoat". "Petersburg Tales" differ in character from Gogol's previous works. (C) Information published on the website
Before us is bureaucratic Petersburg, Petersburg - the capital - the main and high-society, a huge city - business, commercial and labor, and "universal communication" N.V. Gogol "Petersburg Tales", Lenizdat, 1979. S. -3. Petersburg - the brilliant Nevsky Prospekt, on the sidewalk of which everything that lives in Petersburg leaves its traces; “takes out on him the power of strength or the power of weakness” N.V. Gogol "Petersburg Tales", Lenizdat, 1979. S. -4.

And the reader flashes, as in a kaleidoscoᴨȇ, a motley mixture of clothes and faces, in his imagination arises creepy picture restless, stressful life of the capital. The bureaucracy of that time helped to write this accurate portrait of the capital.

So obvious were the delays of the bureaucracy, the problem of “higher” and “lower”, that it was impossible not to write about it, “What a fast phantasmagoria takes place on it in one day!” - Gogol exclaims as if with surprise, but even more amazing is the ability of Gogol himself to reveal with such depth the essence of the social contradictions of the life of a huge city in a brief description of only one street - Nevsky Prospekt.

In the story "The Overcoat", Gogol addresses the hated world of officials, and his satire becomes harsh and merciless: "... he has the gift of sarcasm, which sometimes makes you laugh to the point of convulsions, and sometimes awakens contempt bordering on hatred." This short story made a huge impression on the readers. Gogol, following other writers, came to the defense of the "little man" - an intimidated, powerless, miserable official. He expressed the most sincere, warmest and most sincere sympathy for the destitute person in the beautiful lines of the final argument about the fate and death of one of the many victims of heartlessness and arbitrariness.

The victim of such arbitrariness, a typical representative of a petty official in the story, is Akaky Akakievich. Everything in him was ordinary: both his appearance and his inner spiritual humiliation. Gogol truthfully portrayed his hero as a victim of unjust activities. In The Overcoat, the tragic and the comic complement each other. The author sympathizes with his hero, and at the same time sees his mental limitations and laughs at him. For the entire time of his stay in the department, Akaki Akakievich did not advance at all through the ranks. Gogol shows how limited and miserable was the world in which Akaky Akakievich existed, content with squalid housing, dinner, a shabby uniform and an overcoat coming apart from old age. Gogol laughs, but he laughs not just at Akaky Akakievich, he laughs at the whole society.

But Akaky Akakievich had his own "poetry of life", which had the same humiliated character as his whole life. In ᴨȇwriting papers, he “saw some kind of diverse and pleasant world of his own” 11 N.V. gogol "Petersburg stories", Lenizdat, 1979, p. - 120

In Akaky Akakievich, the human principle was nevertheless preserved. Those around him did not accept his timidity and humility and mocked him in every possible way, poured papers on his head, and Akaky Akakievich could only say: “Leave me, why are you offending me” 22 N.V. Gogol "Petersburg Tales", Lenizdat, 1979, p. - 119 . The life story of Akaky Akakievich is a new streak in his life. A new overcoat is a symbol of new life. The apogee of Akaky Akakievich's work is his first visit to the department in a new overcoat and attending a party at the head clerk's. The hard work of Akaky Akakievich was crowned with success, he at least somehow proved to people that he had conceit. On this, it seemed, the pinnacle of well-being, disaster befell him. Two robbers take off his overcoat. Despair causes Akaky Akakievich to protest impotently. Seeking a reception from the “most private” and addressing a “significant person”, Akaky Akakievich “once in his life wanted to show his character” 11 N.V. Gogol "Petersburg Tales", Lenizdat, 1979, p. - 136 . Gogol sees the failure of his hero's capabilities, but he gives him the opportunity to resist. But Akaki is powerless in the face of a soulless bureaucratic machine and in the end dies just as imperceptibly as he lived. Gogol does not end the story on this. He shows us the ending: the dead Akaki Akakievich, who was meek and humble during his lifetime, now appears as a ghost.

The famous episode in the play “The Overcoat” is the choice of a name, here it’s not just bad luck with the names in the calendar, but precisely a picture of nonsense (since the name is a person): he could be Mokkiy (ᴨȇrevod: “mockery”), and Sossius (“big man” ), and Khozdazat, and Trifiliy, and Varakhasiy, and repeated the name of his father: “the father was Akaki, so let the son be Akaki (“doing no evil”), this phrase can be read as a sentence of fate: the father was a “little man” , let the son be also a "little man." Actually, life, devoid of meaning and joy, is only dying for the “little man”, and out of modesty he is ready to complete his career immediately, as soon as he is born.

Boshmachkin died: “A creature disappeared and disappeared, protected by no one, dear to no one, not interesting to anyone ...”

But the story of the poor official does not end there. We learn that Akaky Akakievich, who was dying in a fever, in his delirium scolded “His Excellency” so much that the old housewife, who was sitting at the bedside of the patient, became frightened. So, right before death itself, anger against the people who killed him woke up in the soul of the downtrodden Bashmachkin.

Gogol tells us at the end of his story that in the world in which Akaky Akakievich lived, the hero as a person, as a person challenging the whole society, can only live after death. The Overcoat tells about the most ordinary and insignificant person about the most mundane events in his life. The story had a great influence on the direction of Russian literature, the theme of the "little man" became one of the most important for many years.

Gogol's "Overcoat" - a grotesque and a gloomy nightmare that breaks through black holes in a vague picture of life 11 Turyanskaya B.I. “Literature in the 9th grade”, M., Russian Word, 2002, p - 34 ... (V.V. Nabokov).

F.M. Dostoevsky is not just a continuer of traditions in Russian literature, but becomes the author of one leading theme - the theme of "poor people", "humiliated and offended". Dostoevsky asserts in his work that every person, no matter who he is, no matter how low he stands, has the right to sympathy and compassion.

Like many outstanding Russian writers, Dostoevsky already in his first novel "Poor People" refers to the theme of the little man.

The social theme, the theme of "poor people", "humiliated and insulted", was continued by the author in "Crime and Punishment", here it sounded even stronger. One by one, the writer reveals before us pictures of hopeless poverty. Dostoevsky chose the dirtiest part of strictly St. Petersburg as the scene of action. Against the background of this ᴨȇizazh, the life of the Marmeladov family unfolds before us.

The fate of this family is closely intertwined with the fate of the protagonist, Rodion Raskolnikov. He drinks himself with grief and loses his human appearance official Marmeladov, who has “nowhere else to go” in life. Exhausted by poverty, Marmeladov's wife, Katerina Ivanovna, dies of consumption. Sonya goes outside to sell her body in order to save her family from starvation.

The fate of the Raskolnikov family is also difficult. His sister Dunya, wanting to help her brother, is ready to sacrifice herself and marry the rich man Luzhin, for whom she feels disgust. Other characters in the novel, including those unfortunate people who fleetingly meet Raskolnikov on the streets of St. Petersburg, complement this big picture immeasurable grief. Raskolnikov understands that the cruel force that creates dead ends for the poor and a bottomless sea of ​​​​suffering in life is money. And in order to get them, he commits a crime under the influence of a far-fetched idea of ​​"extraordinary personalities."

F.M. Dostoevsky created a vast canvas of immeasurable human torment, suffering and grief, peered intently and penetratingly into the soul of the so-called "little man" and discovered in him deposits of enormous spiritual wealth, spiritual generosity and beauty, not broken by the hardest conditions of life. And this was a new word not only in Russian, but throughout the world literature.

The desire to be “rather big” gives rise to the well-known formula in Raskolnikov: “Am I a trembling creature or have the right?”, Which involves a judgment about the meaning human destiny by earthly standards. The hero in Dostoevsky is led by the devil into the field of mortal sin - murder.

One way or another, in Raskolnikov, Dostoevsky portrayed the protest of the “little man”, brought to the limit.

Dostoevsky knows how to create the image of a real fallen man: Marmelad's importunate sweetness, clumsy ornate speech - the property of a beer tribune and a jester at the same time. Awareness of his baseness (“I am a born cattle”) only strengthens his bravado.

Not even poverty, but poverty, in which a person not only literally dies of hunger, but also lose their human appearance and feeling dignity, - this is the state in which the unfortunate Marmeladov family is immersed. A drunken old man of marmalades, for the sake of a glass of vodka, humiliates himself before an innkeeper; his wife, the “proud” Katerina Ivanovna, dying of consumption and sending her seventeen-year-old stepdaughter, the great sufferer Sonya, to sell herself on the street to the libertines of St. Petersburg; the small children of Marmeladov dying of hunger are a vivid confirmation of this. Material suffering entails a world of moral torment that disfigures the human psyche. Dobrolyubov wrote: “In the works of Dostoevsky we find one common feature, more or less noticeable in everything that he wrote: this is the pain of a person who recognizes himself as unable or, finally, not even entitled to be a person, by himself.

To understand the measure of humiliation of a person, you need to delve into inner world titular adviser Marmeladov. The state of mind of this petty official is much more complex and subtle than that of his literary predecessors - Pushkin's Samson Vyrin and Gogol's Bashmachkin. They do not have the power of introspection, which the hero of Dostoevsky achieved. Marmeladov not only suffers, but also analyzes his state of mind, he, as a doctor, puts a merciless diagnosis of the disease - the degradation of his own personality. Here is how he confesses in his first meeting with Raskolnikov: “Dear sir, poverty is not a vice, it is the truth. But ... poverty is a vice - p. In poverty, you still retain all the nobility of innate feelings, but in poverty, never anyone ... because in poverty, I myself am ready to insult myself. A person not only perishes from poverty, but understands how he is spiritually devastated: he begins to despise himself, but does not see anything around him to cling to, which would keep him from the decay of his personality. Marmeladov despises himself. We sympathize with him, we are tormented by his torments and we sharply hate the social circumstances that gave rise to human tragedy.

The cry of Marmeladov’s soul reaches tremendous artistic persuasiveness when he noticed the mockery of the tavern listeners: “Excuse me, young man, can you ... but no, explain stronger and more pictorially: can’t you, but dare you, looking at me at this hour, say in the affirmative that I am not a pig? Emphasizing these words, the writer sharpens our perception, deepens his thought. Of course, you can call a drunkard who destroys his family a swear word, but who will take the liberty to condemn such Marmeladov, who has become a truly tragic figure under the writer's spell!

Marmeladov rebels against the loneliness that a poor man is doomed to in the jungle of a ruthless city.

Marmelad's cry - "after all, it is necessary that every person could at least go somewhere" - expresses the last degree of despair of a dehumanized person.

Glancing at Marmeladov, Raskolnikov saw “an old, completely torn tailcoat with the remaining buttons. Only one held on somehow, and he fastened on it, apparently wanting to keep up appearances.

“More than once they have already pitied me,” says Marmeladov to Raskolnikov. The good general Ivan Afanasyevich also took pity on him, and again accepted him into the service. But Marmeladov could not stand the test, he took to drink again, drank all his salary, drank everything, and in return received a tattered tailcoat with a single button. Marmeladov in his behavior reached the point of losing the last human qualities. He is already so humiliated that he does not feel like a man, but only dreams of being a man among people.

The meeting with Marmeladov in the tavern, his feverish, as if delirious, confession gave Raskolnikov the last proof of the correctness of the “Napoleonic idea”.

Dostoevsky learned from many. What he learned from Gogol at first was especially noticeable in his works - in the choice of theme and hero, in individual elements, in the external details of the description, and even directly in the style. But it was precisely thanks to this circumstance that the development by Gogol's student became clearly distinguishable - according to the principle of contrast - to him alone inherent features in terms of the person and the environment.

The most important and new, in comparison with other writers who have dealt with this topic, is Dostoevsky's downtrodden man's ability to look into himself, the ability of introspection and appropriate actions. The writer subjects to a detailed self-analysis, no other writer in essays, stories, sympathetically depicting the life and customs of the urban poor, had such a leisurely and concentrated psychological penetration and depth of depiction of the character of the characters.

The twentieth century brought the final formation of totalitarianism in Russia. In the period of the most cruel repressions, at a time when a person was completely impersonal and turned into a cog in a huge state machine, writers responded furiously, standing up for the individual.

Blinded by the grandeur of goals, stunned by loud slogans, we completely forgot about the individual person who remained a person after forty-five, and after fifty-three, and after sixty-four - a person with his daily worries, with his desires and hopes that no one can cancel political regime. The one whom Belinsky once called the “little man”, about whom Dostoevsky lamented, whom A.P. tried to raise from his knees. Chekhov, about whom M.A. wrote as a great Master. Burlgakov, lost in the expanse of a huge state, turned into a small piece of history, having disappeared in the camps. The writers made great efforts to resurrect him. The traditions of the classics, the titans of Russian literature, were continued by the writers of the urban direction of prose, those who wrote about the fate of the village during the years of the oppression of totalitarianism, and those who told us about the world of camps. There were dozens of them. It is enough to mention the names of several of them: A.I. Solzhenitsyn, A.T. Trifonov, A.T. Tvardovsky, V. Vysotsky. To understand what a huge scope literature has reached in the fate of the "little man" of the twentieth century.

Petersburg, Moscow - the city that has been troubling many Russian writers for so long has become even more terrible and cruel. He is a symbol of that powerful force that suppresses the weak sprouts of humanity, he is the focus of human grief, the mirror of all Russian reality, the reflection of which we see throughout the country, in the walls of camps and in the backyards of provincial towns.

The "little man" of our city of the 60s - 70s is not able to get to the surface of life and loudly declare his existence. But after all, he is also a man, not a louse, as Raskolnikov wanted to prove to himself, and he deserves not only attention, but also a better share. The way to achieve this was opened to him by those who in our time strived to “straighten their backs with humpbacks.” New writers come out in defense of truth and conscience, they formed a new person, in this regard, one cannot close the last page in a huge kiᴨȇ dedicated to him, the “little man”!

Bibliography:

1. Bulin A.P. “Artistic images of F.M. Dostoevsky".

Moscow, Nauka, 1974

2. Volkova L.D. “Roman F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment".

Leningrad, Enlightenment, 1977

3. Gogol N.V. "Prose. Articles"

Moscow Sovremennik, Russia, 1977

4. Kirpotin V.Ya. "Disappointment and downfall of R. Raskolnikov."

Moscow, Fiction, 1986

5. Nabokov V.V. "Lectures on Russian Literature".

Moscow Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 1998

6. Turyanskaya B.I. "Literature in the 9th grade, lesson by lesson."

Moscow, Russian Word, 2002

Plan

Introduction

The problem of the "new man" in Griboedov's comedy "Woe from Wit"

The theme of a strong man in the work of N.A. Nekrasov

The problem of "a lonely and superfluous person" in a secular society in poetry and prose by M.Yu. Lermontov

The problem of the "poor man" in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment"

The theme of folk character in the tragedy of A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm"

The theme of the people in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace"

The theme of society in the work of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Lord Golovlev"

The problem of the "little man" in the stories and plays of A.P. Chekhov

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

man society Russian literature

Russian literature of the 19th century brought to the whole world the creations of such brilliant writers and poets like A.S. Griboedov, A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.A. Goncharov, A.N. Ostrovsky, I.S. Turgenev, N.A. Nekrasov, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov and others.

In many works of these and other Russian authors of the 19th century, the themes of man, personality, people developed; personality was opposed to society (“Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedov), the problem of “an extra (lonely) person” was demonstrated (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “A Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov), ​​“ poor man” (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky), problems of the people (“War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy) and others. In most of the works, as part of the development of the theme of man and society, the authors demonstrated the tragedy of the individual.

The purpose of this essay is to consider the works of Russian authors of the 19th century, to study their understanding of the problem of man and society, the peculiarities of their perception of these problems. The study used critical literature, as well as works of writers and poets of the Silver Age.

The problem of the "new man" in Griboedov's comedy "Woe from Wit"

Consider, for example, a comedy by A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit", which played an outstanding role in the socio-political and moral education of several generations of Russian people. It armed them to fight against violence and arbitrariness, meanness and ignorance in the name of freedom and reason, in the name of the triumph of advanced ideas and genuine culture. In the image of the protagonist of the comedy Chatsky, Griboedov for the first time in Russian literature showed a “new man”, inspired by lofty ideas, raising a revolt against a reactionary society in defense of freedom, humanity, mind and culture, cultivating a new morality, developing a new view of the world and human relationship.

The image of Chatsky - new, smart, developed person- is opposed to the "famus society". In "Woe from Wit" all Famusov's guests simply copy the customs, habits and outfits of French milliners and rootless visiting rogues who got rich on Russian bread. All of them speak "a mixture of French and Nizhny Novgorod" and go dumb with delight at the sight of any visiting "Frenchman from Bordeaux." Through the mouth of Chatsky, Griboyedov, with the greatest passion, exposed this unworthy servility to a stranger and contempt for his own:

So that the Lord destroyed this unclean spirit

Empty, slavish, blind imitation;

So that he would plant a spark in someone with a soul.

Who could by word and example

Hold us like a strong rein,

From pathetic nausea, on the side of a stranger.

Chatsky loves his people very much, but not " famous society"landowners and officials, but the Russian people, hardworking, wise, powerful. A distinctive feature of Chatsky as a strong man in contrast to the prim Famus society lies in the fullness of feelings. In everything he shows true passion, he is always ardent in soul. He is hot, witty, eloquent, full of life, impatient. At the same time, Chatsky is the only open positive hero in Griboedov's comedy. But it is impossible to call it exceptional and lonely. He is young, romantic, passionate, he has like-minded people: for example, professors Pedagogical Institute, who, according to Princess Tugoukhovskaya, “practice in splits and unbelief”, these are “crazy people”, prone to learning, this is the nephew of the princess, Prince Fedor, “a chemist and botanist”. Chatsky defends the rights of a person to freely choose his occupation: to travel, live in the countryside, "fix his mind" in science or devote himself to "creative, high and beautiful arts."

Chatsky defends the "folk society" and ridicules the "famus society", his life and behavior in his monologue:

Are not these rich in robbery?

They found protection from court in friends, in kinship.

Magnificent building chambers,

Where they overflow in feasts and prodigality.

It can be concluded that Chatsky in comedy represents the young thinking generation of Russian society, its best part. A. I. Herzen wrote about Chatsky: “The image of Chatsky, sad, restless in his irony, trembling with indignation, devoted to the dreamy ideal, appears at the last moment of the reign of Alexander I, on the eve of the uprising on St. Isaac's Square. This is a Decembrist, this is a man who completes the era of Peter the Great and tries to see, at least on the horizon, the promised land ... ".

The theme of a strong man in the work of N.A. Nekrasov

The theme of a strong man is found in the lyrical works of N.A. Nekrasov, whose work many call whole era Russian literature and public life. The source of Nekrasov's poetry was life itself. Nekrasov positions the problem moral choice a person, a lyrical hero in his poems: the struggle between good and evil, the interweaving of the lofty, heroic with the empty, indifferent, mundane. In 1856, Nekrasov's poem "The Poet and the Citizen" was published in the Sovremennik magazine, in which the author affirmed the social significance of poetry, its role and active participation in life:

Go into the fire for the honor of the Fatherland,

For faith, for love...

Go and die flawlessly

You will not die in vain: the matter is solid,

When blood flows under him.

Nekrasov in this poem simultaneously shows strength lofty ideas, thoughts and duty of a citizen, a person, a fighter, and at the same time implicitly condemns a person’s retreat from duty, serving the motherland and people. In the poem "Elegy" Nekrasov conveys the most sincere, personal sympathy for the people in their difficult lot. Nekrasov, knowing the life of the peasantry, saw real strength in the people, believed in their ability to renew Russia:

Will endure everything - and wide, clear

He will pave the way for himself with his chest ...

An eternal example of serving the Fatherland were such people as N.A. Dobrolyubov ("In Memory of Dobrolyubov"), T.G. Shevchenko (“On the death of Shevchenko”), V.G. Belinsky ("In memory of Belinsky").

Nekrasov himself was born in a simple serf-owning village, where "something was crushing", "my heart ached". He painfully recalls his mother with her "proud, stubborn and beautiful soul", who was forever given to "a gloomy ignoramus ... and a slave carried her lot in silence." The poet praises her pride and strength:

With a head open to the storms of life

All my life under an angry thunderstorm

You stood, - with your chest

Protecting beloved children.

The central place in the lyrics of N.A. Nekrasov is occupied by a “living”, acting, strong person who is alien to passivity and contemplation.

The problem of "a lonely and superfluous person" in a secular society in poetry and prose by M.Yu. Lermontov

The theme of a lonely person who is struggling with society is well disclosed in the work of M.Yu. Lermontov (Valerik):

I thought: “Poor man.

What does he want!”, the sky is clear,

Under the sky there is a lot of space for everyone,

But incessantly and in vain

One is at enmity- For what?"

In his lyrics, Lermontov seeks to tell people about his pain, but all his knowledge and thoughts do not satisfy him. The older he gets, the more difficult the world seems to him. He connects everything that happens to him with the fate of a whole generation. The lyrical hero of the famous "Duma" is hopelessly lonely, but he is also worried about the fate of the generation. The more keenly he peers into life, the clearer it becomes for him that he himself cannot be indifferent to human troubles. Evil must be fought, not run from it. Inaction reconciles with the existing injustice, at the same time causing loneliness and the desire to live in the closed world of one's own "I". And, worst of all, it breeds indifference to the world and people. Only in struggle does a person find himself. In the "Duma" the poet clearly says that it was inaction that ruined his contemporaries.

In the poem “I look at the future with fear ...” M.Yu. Lermontov openly condemns a society alien to feelings, an indifferent generation:

Sadly, I look at our generation!

His coming- either empty or dark...

Shamefully indifferent to good and evil,

At the beginning of the race, we wither without a fight ...

The theme of a lonely person in Lermontov's work is by no means due only to personal drama and hard fate, but it largely reflects the state of Russian social thought during the reaction period. That is why in the lyrics of Lermontov, a lonely rebel, a Protestant, at enmity with "heaven and earth", fighting for freedom, took a significant place. human personality foreseeing his own untimely death.

The poet opposes himself, the "living", the society in which he lives, - the "dead" generation. The “life” of the author is conditioned by the fullness of feelings, even simply by the ability to feel, see, understand and fight, and the “death” of society is determined by indifference and narrow-minded thinking. In the poem "I go out alone on the road ..." the poet is full of sad hopelessness, in this poem he reflects how far the disease of society has gone. The idea of ​​life as “a smooth path without a goal” gives rise to a feeling of the futility of desires - “what good is it to wish in vain and forever? ..” The line: “We hate and we love by chance” logically leads to a bitter conclusion: worth the work, but it is impossible to love forever.

Further, in the poem “And Boring and Sad...” and in the novel “A Hero of Our Time”, the poet, speaking about friendship, about higher spiritual aspirations, about the meaning of life, about passions, seeks to explore the reasons for dissatisfaction with his appointment. For example, Grushnitsky belongs to a secular society, a characteristic feature of which is lack of spirituality. Pechorin, accepting the conditions of the game, is, as it were, “above society”, knowing full well that “images of soulless people flicker there, masks pulled together by decency”. Pechorin is not only a reproach to all the best people of the generation, but also a call to civil deeds.

A strong, independent, lonely and even free personality is symbolized by M.Yu. Lermontov "Sail":

Alas!- he is not looking for happiness

And not from happiness runs!

In the famous novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time" solves the problem of why smart and agile people do not find application for their remarkable abilities and "wither without a fight" at the very beginning of their life path? Lermontov answers this question with the life story of Pechorin, a young man belonging to the generation of the 30s of the 19th century. In the image of Pechorin, the author presented an artistic type that absorbed a whole generation of young people at the beginning of the century. In the preface to Pechorin's Journal, Lermontov writes: "The history of the human soul, even the smallest soul, is almost more curious and more useful than the history of a whole people ...".

In this novel, Lermontov reveals the theme of "an extra person", because Pechorin is an "extra person". His behavior is incomprehensible to others, because it does not correspond to their ordinary point of view on life, common in a noble society. With all the differences in appearance and character traits, Eugene Onegin from the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the hero of the comedy A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit" Chatsky, and Pechorin M.Yu. Lermontov belong to the type of "superfluous people", that is, people for whom there was neither place nor business in the surrounding society.

Is there a clear similarity between Pechorin and Onegin? Yes. Both of them are representatives of high secular society. Much in common can be noted in the history and youth of these heroes: first, the pursuit of secular pleasures, then disappointment in them, an attempt to do science, reading books and cooling down to them, the same boredom that owns them. Like Onegin, Pechorin is intellectually superior to the surrounding nobility. Both heroes are typical representatives of thinking people of their time, critical of life and people.

Then the similarities end and the differences begin. Pechorin differs from Onegin in his spiritual way, he lives in different socio-political conditions. Onegin lived in the 1920s, before the Decembrist uprising, at the time of social and political revival. Pechorin is a man of the 30s, when the Decembrists were defeated, and revolutionary democrats How social force have not yet declared themselves.

Onegin could go to the Decembrists, Pechorin was deprived of such an opportunity. Pechorin's position is all the more tragic because he is by nature more gifted and deeper than Onegin. This giftedness manifests itself in a deep mind, strong passions and the steel will of Pechorin. The sharp mind of the hero allows him to correctly judge people, about life, to be critical of himself. The characteristics given by him to people are quite accurate. Pechorin's heart is able to feel deeply and strongly, although outwardly he keeps calm, because "the fullness and depth of feelings and thoughts does not allow frantic impulses." Lermontov shows in his novel a strong, strong-willed personality, eager for activity.

But for all his giftedness and wealth of spiritual powers, Pechorin, by his own fair definition, is a "moral cripple." His character and all his behavior are distinguished by extreme inconsistency, which affects even his appearance, which, like all people, reflects the inner appearance of a person. Pechorin's eyes "did not laugh when he laughed." Lermontov says that: "This is a sign of either an evil temper, or a deep, constant sadness ...".

Pechorin, on the one hand, is skeptical, on the other, he is thirsty for activity; reason in him struggles with feelings; he is selfish, and at the same time capable of deep feelings. Left without Vera, unable to catch up with her, "he fell on the wet grass and, like a child, wept." Lermontov shows in Pechorin the tragedy of a person, a “moral cripple”, an intelligent and strong person, whose most terrible contradiction lies in the presence of “immense forces of the soul” and the commission of petty, insignificant deeds. Pechorin strives to "love the whole world", but brings people only evil and misfortune; his aspirations are noble, but his feelings are not high; he longs for life, but suffers from complete hopelessness, from the realization of his doom.

To the question why everything is so and not otherwise, the hero himself answers in the novel: “In my soul is spoiled by light”, that is, by the secular society in which he lived and from which he could not escape. But the point here is not only in an empty noble society. In the 1920s, the Decembrists left this society. But Pechorin, as already mentioned, is a man of the 30s, a typical representative of his time. This time put him before a choice: "either decisive inaction, or empty activity." Energy seeths in him, he wants active action, he understands that he could have "a high purpose."

The tragedy of the noble society is again in its indifference, emptiness, inactivity.

The tragedy of Pechorin's fate is that he never found the main, worthy of his goal in life, since it was impossible in his time to apply his strength to a socially useful cause.

The problem of the "poor man" in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment"

Let us now turn to the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment". In this work, the author draws the reader's attention to the problem of the "poor man". In the article " downtrodden people" ON THE. Dobrolyubov wrote: “In the works of F.M. Dostoevsky, we find one common feature, more or less noticeable in everything that he wrote. This is pain about a person who recognizes himself as unable or, finally, not even entitled to be a person, a real, complete independent person on his own.

F. M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment" is a book about the life of destitute poor people, a book that reflects the writer's pain for the desecrated honor of a "little" person. Before readers unfold pictures of the suffering of "little" people. Their lives are spent in dirty closets.

Well-fed Petersburg looks coldly and indifferently at the destitute people. Tavern and street life interferes in the fate of people, leaving an imprint on their experiences and actions. Here is a woman who throws herself into a canal... But a drunk fifteen-year-old girl is walking along the boulevard... A typical shelter for the poor in the capital is the miserable room of the Marmeladovs. At the sight of this room, the poverty of the inhabitants, the bitterness with which Marmeladov told Raskolnikov the story of his life, the story of his family a few hours ago, becomes understandable. Marmeladov's story about himself in a dirty tavern is a bitter confession " dead person crushed unjustly by the yoke of circumstances.

But the very vice of Marmeladov is explained by the immensity of his misfortunes, the awareness of his deprivation, the humiliation that poverty brings him. “Dear sir,” he began almost solemnly, “poverty is not a vice, it is the truth. I know that drunkenness is not a virtue, and this is all the more so. But poverty, sir, poverty is a vice. In poverty, you still retain your nobility of innate feelings, but in poverty - never anyone. Marmeladov is a poor man who has "nowhere to go." Marmeladov is sliding further and further down, but even in the fall he retains the best human impulses, the ability to feel strongly, which are expressed, for example, in his plea for forgiveness to Katerina Ivanovna and Sonya.

All her life, Katerina Ivanovna has been looking for how and with what to feed her children, she has been in need and deprivation. Proud, passionate, adamant, left a widow with three children, under the threat of hunger and poverty, she was forced, “weeping and sobbing and wringing her hands,” to marry a homely official, a widower with a fourteen-year-old daughter Sonya, who, in turn, married Katerina Ivanovna out of a sense of pity and compassion. Poverty kills the Marmeladov family, but they fight, albeit without a chance. Dostoevsky himself says of Katerina Ivanovna: “But Katerina Ivanovna was, moreover, not one of those downtrodden, she could be completely killed by circumstances, but it was impossible to beat her morally, that is, it was impossible to scare and subjugate her will.” This desire to feel complete person and forced Katerina Ivanovna to arrange a chic commemoration.

Next to the feeling of self-respect in the soul of Katerina Ivanovna lives another bright feeling - kindness. She tries to justify her husband, saying: “Look, Rodion Romanovich, she found a gingerbread cockerel in his pocket: he’s walking dead drunk, but he remembers about the children ...” She, holding Sonya tightly, as if with her own breast wants to protect her from Luzhin’s accusations says: "Sonya! Sonya! I don’t believe!”… She understands that after the death of her husband her children are doomed to starvation, that fate is not merciful to them. So Dostoevsky refutes the theory of consolation and humility, which allegedly leads everyone to happiness and well-being, just as Katerina Ivanovna rejects the consolation of a priest. Its end is tragic. In unconsciousness, she runs to the general to ask for help, but "their excellencies are having lunch" and the doors are closed in front of her, there is no longer any hope of salvation, and Katerina Ivanovna decides to take the last step: she goes to beg. The scene of the death of a poor woman is impressive. The words with which she dies, “leave the nag,” echo the image of a tortured, beaten to death horse that Raskolnikov once dreamed of. The image of a broken horse by F. Dostoevsky, a poem by N. Nekrasov about a beaten horse, a fairy tale by M. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Konyaga" - such is the generalized, tragic image tortured people. The face of Katerina Ivanovna captures the tragic image of grief, which is a vivid protest of the free soul of the author. This image line up eternal images world literature, the tragedy of the existence of outcasts is also embodied in the image of Sonechka Marmeladova.

This girl also has nowhere to go and run in this world, according to Marmeladov, “how much can a poor but honest girl earn with honest labor.” Life itself answers this question in the negative. And Sonya goes to sell herself to save her family from starvation, because there is no way out, she has no right to commit suicide.

Her image is inconsistent. On the one hand, it is immoral and negative. On the other hand, had Sonya not violated the norms of morality, she would have doomed the children to starvation. Thus, the image of Sonya turns into a generalizing image of eternal victims. Therefore, Raskolnikov exclaims these famous words: “Sonechka Marmeladova! Eternal Sonya "...

F.M. Dostoevsky shows Sonya's humiliated position in this world: "Sonya sat down, almost trembling with fear, and timidly looked at both ladies." And it is this timid downtrodden creature that becomes a strong moral mentor, F.M. Dostoevsky! The main thing in Sonya's character is humility, forgiving Christian love for people, religiosity. Eternal humility, faith in God give her strength, help her live. Therefore, it is she who makes Raskolnikov confess to a crime, showing that the true meaning of life is in suffering. The image of Sonechka Marmeladova was the only light of F.M. Dostoevsky in the general darkness of hopelessness, in the same empty noble society, throughout the whole novel.

In the novel "Crime and Punishment" F.M. Dostoevsky creates an image pure love to people, the image of eternal human suffering, the image of the doomed victim, each of which was embodied in the image of Sonechka Marmeladova. The fate of Sonya is the fate of the victim of abominations, deformities of the possessive system, in which a woman becomes an object of sale. A similar fate was prepared for Duna Raskolnikova, who was to follow the same path, and Raskolnikov knew this. In a very detailed, psychologically correct portrayal of "poor people" in society, F.M. Dostoevsky carries out the main idea of ​​the novel: it is impossible to live like this any longer. These "poor people" are Dostoevsky's protest to that time and to society, a bitter, heavy, bold protest.

The theme of folk character in the tragedy of A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm"

Consider further the tragedy of A.N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm". Before us is Katerina, who alone in The Thunderstorm is given to hold the fullness of viable principles folk culture. Katerina's worldview harmoniously combines Slavic pagan antiquity with Christian culture, spiritualizing and morally enlightening old pagan beliefs. Katerina's religiosity is inconceivable without sunrises and sunsets, dewy herbs in flowering meadows, flights of birds, butterflies fluttering from flower to flower. In the monologues of the heroine, the familiar motifs of Russian folk songs come to life. In Katerina's worldview, a spring of primordially Russian song culture beats and Christian beliefs take on new life. The joy of life is experienced by the heroine in the temple, the sun bows to the ground in the garden, among the trees, grasses, flowers, morning freshness, awakening nature: I don't know what I'm praying for and what I'm crying about; that's how they'll find me." In the mind of Katerina, the ancients, who entered the flesh and blood of the Russian folk character, awaken pagan myths, deep layers of Slavic culture are revealed.

But here in the house of the Kabanovs, Katerina gets into " dark kingdom» spiritual unfreedom. “Everything here seems to be from under bondage,” a stern religious spirit has settled here, democracy has faded here, the cheerful generosity of the people's worldview has disappeared. The wanderers in the house of the Kabanikha are different, from among those hypocrites who “due to their weakness did not go far, but heard a lot.” And they talk about last times about the coming end of the world. These wanderers are alien to the pure world of Katerina, they are in the service of Kabanikh, and therefore they cannot have anything in common with Katerina. She is pure, dreaming, believing, and in the house of the Kabanovs “she has almost nothing to breathe” ... The heroine becomes hard because Ostrovsky shows her as a woman who is alien to compromises, who longs for universal truth and does not agree to anything less.

The theme of the people in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace"

Let us also recall that in 1869, from the pen of L.N. Tolstoy published one of the brilliant works of world literature - the epic novel "War and Peace". In this work, the main character is not Pechorin, not Onegin, not Chatsky. The protagonist of the novel "War and Peace" is the people. “For a work to be good, one must love the main, basic idea in it. In War and Peace, I loved the thought of the people, as a result of the war of 1812, ”said L.N. Tolstoy.

So, the main character of the novel is the people. The people who rose in 1812 to defend their homeland and defeated in the war of liberation a huge enemy army led by an invincible commander until then. Major events novels are evaluated by Tolstoy with folk point vision. The writer’s assessment of the war of 1805 is expressed by the writer in the words of Prince Andrei: “Why did we lose the battle near Austerlitz? .. There was no need for us to fight there: we wanted to leave the battlefield as soon as possible.” The Patriotic War of 1812 was a just, national liberation war for Russia. The Napoleonic hordes crossed the borders of Russia and headed for its center - Moscow. Then all the people came out to fight the invaders. Ordinary Russian people - the peasants Karp and Vlas, the elder Vasilisa, the merchant Ferapontov, the deacon and many others - hostilely meet the Napoleonic army, put up due resistance to it. The feeling of love for the motherland swept the whole society.

L.N. Tolstoy says that "for the Russian people there could be no question whether it would be good or bad under the rule of the French." The Rostovs are leaving Moscow, having handed over carts to the wounded and leaving their house to the mercy of fate; Princess Marya Bolkonskaya leaves her native Bogucharovo nest. Disguised in a simple dress, Count Pierre Bezukhov is armed and stays in Moscow, intending to kill Napoleon.

With all this, not all people united in the face of war. Cause contempt individual representatives of the bureaucratic-aristocratic society, which in the days of nationwide disaster acted for selfish and selfish purposes. The enemy was already in Moscow when Petersburg court life went on in the old way: “There were the same exits, balls, the same French theater, the same interests of service and intrigue.” The patriotism of the Moscow aristocrats consisted in the fact that instead of the French dishes were eaten by Russian cabbage soup, and a fine was imposed for French words.

Tolstoy angrily denounces the Moscow governor-general and commander-in-chief of the Moscow garrison, Count Rostopchin, who, due to his arrogance and cowardice, was unable to organize replacements for Kutuzov's heroically fighting army. The author speaks with indignation about careerists - foreign generals like Wolzogen. They gave all of Europe to Napoleon, and then "they came to teach us - glorious teachers!" Among staff officers, Tolstoy singles out a group of people who want only one thing: "... the greatest benefits and pleasures for themselves ... The drone population of the army." These people include Nesvitsky, Drubetsky, Berg, Zherkov and others.

These people L.N. Tolstoy contrasts the common people, who played the main and decisive role in the war against the French conquerors. The patriotic feelings that gripped the Russians gave rise to the general heroism of the defenders of the Motherland. Talking about the battles near Smolensk, Andrei Bolkonsky rightly noted that Russian soldiers “fought there for the first time for the Russian land”, that there was such a spirit in the troops, what he (Bolkonsky) never saw that the Russian soldiers "repulsed the French for two days in a row, and that this success multiplied our forces tenfold."

The “folk thought” is felt even more fully in those chapters of the novel where characters are depicted who are close to the people or strive to understand it: Tushin and Timokhin, Natasha and Princess Marya, Pierre and Prince Andrei - all those who can be called “Russian souls”.

Tolstoy portrays Kutuzov as a person who embodied the spirit of the people. Kutuzov is a truly popular commander. Thus, expressing the needs, thoughts and feelings of the soldiers, he speaks during the review near Braunau, and during the Battle of Austerlitz, and especially during the Patriotic War of 1812. “Kutuzov,” writes Tolstoy, “with his whole Russian being knew and felt what every Russian soldier felt.” Kutuzov is his own for Russia, native person he is a carrier folk wisdom, an exponent of popular feelings. He is distinguished by "an extraordinary power of penetration into the meaning of occurring phenomena, and its source lies in the popular feeling, which he carried in himself in all its purity and strength." Only the recognition of this feeling in him made the people elect him, against the will of the tsar, as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. And only this feeling put him on that height from which he directed all his forces not to kill and exterminate people, but to save and pity them.

Both soldiers and officers - they all fight not for St. George's crosses, but for the Fatherland. The defenders of the battery of General Raevsky shake with their moral stamina. Tolstoy shows the extraordinary stamina and courage of the soldiers and the better part of the officers. At the center of the story about the partisan war is the image of Tikhon Shcherbaty, who embodies the best national traits of the Russian people. Next to him stands Platon Karataev, who in the novel "represents everything Russian, folk, good." Tolstoy writes: "... it is good for the people who, in a moment of trial ... with simplicity and ease, pick up the first club that comes across and nail it until in their souls feelings of insult and revenge are replaced by contempt and pity."

Speaking about the results of the Battle of Borodino, Tolstoy calls the victory of the Russian people over Napoleon a moral victory. Tolstoy glorifies the people, who, having lost half of the army, stood as menacingly as at the beginning of the battle. And as a result, the people achieved their goal: the native land was cleared by the Russian people from foreign invaders.

The theme of society in the work of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Lord Golovlev"

Let us also recall such a novel about public life as “Lords Golovlevs” by M.E. Satykov-Shchedrin. The novel presents noble family which reflects the decay of bourgeois society. As in a bourgeois society, in this family all moral relations, family ties, and moral norms of behavior collapse.

In the center of the novel, the head of the family, Arina Petrovna Golovleva, is an imperious landowner, a purposeful, strong housewife, spoiled by power over her family and others. She single-handedly manages the estate, depriving the serfs, turning her husband into a "hooker", crippling the lives of "hateful children" and corrupting her "favorite" children. She builds wealth, without knowing why, implying that she does everything for the family, for the children. But about duty, family, children, she repeats all the time rather in order to hide her indifferent attitude towards them. For Arina Petrovna, the word family is just an empty phrase, even though it never left her lips. She fussed about the family, but at the same time forgot about her. The thirst for hoarding, greed killed the instincts of motherhood in her, all that she could give to children was indifference. And they began to answer her the same. They did not show her gratitude for all the work that she did “for their sake”. But, forever immersed in troubles and calculations, Arina Petrovna forgot about this thought too.

All this, together with time, morally corrupts all the people close to her, as well as herself. The eldest son Stepan drank himself, died a loser. The daughter, from whom Arina Petrovna wanted to make a free accountant, ran away from home and soon died, abandoned by her husband. Arina Petrovna took her two little twin girls to her. The girls grew up and became provincial actresses. Also left to their own devices, as a result, they were drawn into a scandalous lawsuit, later one of them was poisoned, the second did not have the courage to drink poison, and she buried herself alive in Golovlevo.

Then the abolition of serfdom dealt a strong blow to Arina Petrovna: knocked off her usual rhythm, she becomes weak and helpless. She divides the estate between her favorite sons Porfiry and Paul, leaving only capital for herself. The cunning Porfiry managed to lure capital from his mother. Then Paul soon died, leaving his property to the hated brother Porphyry. And now we see clearly that everything for which Arina Petrovna subjected herself and her loved ones to deprivation and torment all her life turned out to be nothing but a ghost.

The problem of the "little man" in the stories and plays of A.P. Chekhov

A.P. also speaks about the degradation of a person under the influence of a passion for profit. Chekhov in his story “Ionych”, which was written in 1898: “How are we doing here? No way. We grow old, we grow fat, we fall. Day and night - a day away, life passes dimly, without impressions, without thoughts ... ".

The hero of the story "Ionych" is a habitual narrow-minded fat man, the peculiarity of which is that he is smart, unlike many others. Dmitry Ionych Startsev understands how insignificant the thoughts of the people around him are, who are happy to talk only about food. But at the same time, Ionych did not even have thoughts that it was necessary to fight with such a way of life. He did not even have a desire to fight for his love. His feeling for Ekaterina Ivanovna is difficult, in fact, to be called love, because it passed three days after her refusal. Startsev thinks with pleasure about her dowry, and Ekaterina Ivanovna's refusal only offends him, and nothing more.

The hero is possessed by mental laziness, which gives rise to absence strong feelings and experiences. Over time, this spiritual laziness weathers everything good and sublime from Startsev's soul. They began to own only the passion for profit. At the end of the story, it was the passion for money that extinguished the last flame in Ionych's soul, lit by the words of the already adult and intelligent Ekaterina Ivanovna. Chekhov sadly writes that a strong light human soul can extinguish just a passion for money, simple pieces of paper.

A.P. writes about a man, a little man. Chekhov in his stories: "Everything should be beautiful in a person: the face, and clothes, and the soul, and thoughts." All the writers of Russian literature treated the little man differently. Gogol urged to love and pity the "little man" as he is. Dostoevsky - to see a personality in him. Chekhov, on the other hand, is looking for the guilty not in the society that surrounds a person, but in the person himself. He says that the reason for the humiliation of the little man is himself. Consider Chekhov's story "The Man in the Case". His hero Belikov himself went down, because he is afraid of real life and runs away from it. He is an unfortunate person who poisons the life of himself and those around him. Prohibitions for him are clear and unambiguous, and permissions cause fear and doubt: "No matter how something happens." Under his influence, everyone became afraid to do something: speak loudly, make acquaintances, help the poor, etc.

With their cases, people like Belikov kill all living things. And he was able to find his ideal only after death, it is in the coffin that his facial expression becomes cheerful, peaceful, as if he has finally found that case from which he can no longer get out.

The petty philistine life destroys everything good in a person if there is no inner protest in him. This is what happened with Startsev, with Belikov. Further, Chekhov seeks to show the mood, life of entire classes, strata of society. This is what he does in his plays. In the play "Ivanov" Chekhov again turns to the theme of the little man. The main character of the play is an intellectual who made huge life plans, but helplessly lost to the obstacles that life itself put in front of him. Ivanov is a small man who, as a result of an internal breakdown, turns from an active worker into a broken loser.

In the following plays A.P. Chekhov's "Three Sisters", "Uncle Vanya" the main conflict develops in the clash of morally pure, bright personalities with the world of the townsfolk, greed, greed, cynicism. And then there are people who go to replace all this worldly vulgarity. These are Anya and Petya Trofimov from the play The Cherry Orchard. In this play, A.P. Chekhov shows that not all small people necessarily turn into broken, small and limited. Petya Trofimov, eternal student, belongs to the student movement. For several months he was hiding at Ranevskaya. This young man is strong, smart, proud, honest. He believes that he can correct his situation only by honest constant work. Petya believes that a bright future awaits his society, his homeland, although he does not know the exact lines of life change. Petya is only proud of his disregard for money. The young man influences the formation of the life positions of Anya, the daughter of Ranevskaya. She is honest, beautiful in her feelings and behavior. With such pure feelings, with faith in the future, a person should no longer be small, this already makes him big. Chekhov also writes about good (“big”) people.

So, in his story "The Jumper" we see how Dr. Dymov, good man, a doctor who lives for the happiness of others, dies saving someone else's child from illness.

Conclusion

In this essay, such works of Russian writers of the Silver Age as Ostrovsky's "Thunderstorm", Lermontov's "Hero of Our Time", Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin", Tolstoy's "War and Peace", Dostoyevsky's "Crime and Punishment" and others were considered. The theme of man and people in the lyrics of Lermontov, Nekrasov, Chekhov's plays has been studied.

Summing up, it should be noted that in Russian literature of the 19th century, the theme of a person, personality, people, society is found in almost every work of the great writers of that time. Russian authors write about the problems of superfluous, new, small, poor, strong, different people. Often in their works we meet with the tragedy of a strong personality or a small person; with the opposition of a strong "living" personality to an indifferent "dead" society. At the same time, we often read about the strength and diligence of the Russian people, to which many writers and poets are especially touching.