Direction, flow, school is artistic communities that are historically formed in the course of the literary process. The direction was originally understood as the general character of all national literature or some period of it, as well as the goal towards which it should strive. In 1821, a professor at Moscow University, I. I. Davydov, declared that “Russian literature can and should receive its true direction” from learned societies; in 1822 Professor A.F. Merzlyakov called on to determine the direction and successes of Russian literature; in 1824, V.K. Küchelbecker published an article “On the direction of our poetry, especially lyrical, in last decade". In I.V. Kireevsky's article "The Nineteenth Century" (1832), the "dominant direction of minds" of the late 18th century. was defined as destructive, and the new as consisting “in the desire for a soothing equation of the new spirit with the ruins of old times ... In literature, the result of this trend was the desire to reconcile imagination with reality, the correctness of forms with freedom of content ... in a word, what is in vain called classicism with what is even more incorrectly called romanticism. As a result of the direction of minds, the last works of I.V. Goethe and the novels of V. Skotg were mentioned. KL Polevoy directly applied the word "direction" to certain stages of literature, without abandoning its broader meanings. In the article “On Directions and Parties in Literature,” he called the direction “that inner striving of literature, often invisible to contemporaries, which gives character to all, or at least to very many of its works in the known, given time... its foundation, in general sense, there is an idea modern era or the direction of the whole people. The criticism of those years mentioned different directions: "folk", "Byronic", "historical", "German", "French". P.A. Vyazemsky in the book “Fon-Vizin” (1830) singled out the satirical direction in the Russian theater from A.P. Sumarokov to A.S. Griboyedov. The central concept of the direction became in the criticism of V. G. Belinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov. In colloquial speech, "a writer with a direction" meant a writer with a tendency. At the same time, a variety of literary communities were understood under the direction. F.M. Dostoevsky in the anti-Dobrolyubov article "Gn - bov and the question of art" (1861) recognizes the existence of literary parties "in the sense of dissenting convictions" and "the need for a sensible direction in literature" ("we ourselves are thirsty, hungry for good direction and highly value it"), but he is against the narrow understanding of the public utility of art by the "utilitarian trend".

Flow

Gradually, along with the concept of "direction", an almost synonymous, but more neutral, not associated with demonstrative tendentiousness, concept of "flow" begins to be used. It is also characterized by uncertainty, sometimes even more than the "direction" - as in D.S. Merezhkovsky's pamphlet "On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature" (1893). K.D. Balmont in the article “Elementary words about symbolic poetry” (1904) closely connected symbolism “with two other varieties of modern literary creativity, known as decadence and impressionism”, believing that in fact “all these currents then run in parallel , then diverge, then merge into one stream, but, in any case, they tend in the same direction. Literary criticism of the first third of the 20th century. willingly used in relation to the most significant literary communities the term style in a broad art history sense (P.N. Sakulin, V.M. Friche, I.A. Vinogradov, etc.), sometimes - “the style of the era”; the “styles of the era” were remembered much later (D.S. Likhachev, A.V. Mikhailov). Soviet theorists tried to streamline the use of the words "direction" and "flow" based not so much on their historical functioning as on their own logical constructions. The most widespread point of view, according to which the direction - large literary and artistic communities, formed by the unity creative method: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism. It was also customary to consider the direction: Renaissance and Enlightenment "realism", baroque, naturalism, symbolism, socialist realism. Mannerism, Rococo, pre-romanticism (identified with sentimentalism), impressionism, expressionism, futurism raised doubts in this sense. Uncertain was the status of modernism, which orthodox Soviet theory preferred not to deal with. A.N. Sokolov made adjustments to the common elementary scheme. He admitted that at the heart of the direction is the proximity of substantive principles. But, for example, the romantic period can continue to exist outside the romantic direction (the works of A.A. Fet, A.K. Tolstoy, Ya.P. Polonsky); there are also trends that have not developed their own method, like sentimentalism, which took shape in the struggle against classicism and prepared a new, romantic method.

The current was recognized as a kind of direction, allocated according to the aesthetic, and more often the ideological principle. Romanticism was divided into revolutionary (in a softened version - progressive) and reactionary (in a softened version - conservative). In French classicism, they distinguished between the currents based on the tradition of rationalism by R. Descartes (P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau), and the currents that more assimilated the sensualist tradition of P. Gassendi (J. La Fontaine, J. B. Molière). In Russian realism of the 19th century, U.R. Focht contrasted the psychological and sociological trends. different features identified several trends in socialist realism. G.N. Pospelov separated “literary trends” and “ideological and literary currents”: the latter are not components of the former, both of them only intersect. Currents seem to be more important. They differ in the ideological and artistic area, first of all, in the commonality of the problematics. Directions, according to Pospelov, are distinguished according to the principle of the presence of creative programs, and before classicism they did not exist. Currents are recognized at an early stage literary development since antiquity. Realism is divided both into currents and directions - according to various criteria. Western literary criticism generally ignores the notion of direction and flow as scholastic. R. Welleck and O. Warren emphasize the discrepancy between the self-consciousness of literary communities and their designations by researchers: in English language the name "Era of Humanism" was first recorded in 1832, "Renaissance" - in 1840, "romanticism" - in 1831 (by T. Carlyle) and then in 1844 (the English romantics did not call themselves that; c. 1849 they included S.T. .Coleridge and W. Wordsworth). However, in view of the presence of programs, manifestos, facts of similarity between national literatures, Welleck and Warren insist on the need for the concept of a period.

School

School is a small association of writers based on common artistic principles, more or less clearly formulated theoretically. The school was in the 16th century. group " ". In the 18th century the German classicist J.H. Gottsched opposed the baroque pomposity of the “second Silesian school”. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, the "lake school" of English romantics developed. In the early 1820s, the concepts of "romantic poetry", "romantic genre", "romantic school" spread. V.A. Zhukovsky was later called the founder of the Russian “romantic school”. Russian realism matured within the framework of the "natural school"

As noted earlier, among literary critics there is no consensus on how to distinguish between the concepts of "artistic system", "literary direction" and " literary movement". Most often, scholars refer to “systems” as “international literary communities” (baroque, classicism, etc.), while the terms “direction” and “flow” are used in a narrower sense.

The point of view of G.N. Pospelov, who believed that literary movement - ϶ᴛᴏ refraction in the work of writers and poets of certain social views (world outlook, ideologies), and directions - These are writers' groupings that arise on the basis of a common aesthetic views and certain programs artistic activity(expressed in treatises, manifestos, slogans, etc.). Currents and directions in this meaning of words - ϶ᴛᴏ facts of individual national literatures(Theory of literature - M., 1978, pp. 134 - 140).

In other words, direction is a literary concept denoting a set of fundamental spiritually meaningful and aesthetic principles characteristic of the work of many writers, a number of groups, as well as due to these most important principles of coincidence and correspondence of programmatic and creative settings, themes, heat and style.

According to Pospelov, literary direction appears when a group of writers of a particular country and era unites on the basis of some specific creative program and creates their own works, focusing on its provisions. This contributes to greater creative organization and completeness of their works. But it is not the program principles proclaimed by some group of writers that determine the features of their work, but, on the contrary, the ideological and artistic commonality creativity unites writers and inspires them to realize and proclaim the corresponding program principles.

In European literatures directions appear only in modern times when artistic creativity acquires relative independence and the quality of the "art of the word", separating itself from other non-artistic genres. Literature imperiously enters the personal beginning, it becomes possible to express the author's point of view, the choice of one or another life and creative position. Directions in the history of European literature are considered to be Renaissance realism, baroque, classicism, enlightenment realism sentimentalism, romanticism, critical realism, naturalism, symbolism, socialist realism. The existence of these major trends in a number of national literatures is more or less generally recognized. The legitimacy of singling out others - rococo, pre-romanticism, neoclassicism, neo-romanticism, etc. - causes controversy.

Directions are not closed, but open character; the transition from one to another usually involves intermediate forms (pre-romanticism in European literature XVIII century). A new direction, replacing the old one, does not immediately eliminate it, but coexists with it for some time - a creative and theoretical debate takes place between them.

The alternation and the same sequence of directions in European literature allow us to consider them as an international phenomenon; however, this or that direction in each literature acts from this point of view as a national variant of the corresponding pan-European model. The national-historical originality of trends in individual countries is sometimes so significant that it is problematic to attribute them to a single type, and the typological commonality of classicism, romanticism, etc. – very conditional and relative. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, when creating a general model of a literary trend, one has to take into account the degree of typological commonality of its national forms - the fact that qualitatively different directions often appear under the flag of one direction.

Appearance in national literatures literary trends does not mean that all writers necessarily belonged to one or the other of them. There were also such writers who did not rise to the level of programming their creativity, did not create literary theories, and their creativity, therefore, cannot be assigned designations arising from any program provisions. Such writers do not belong to any movement. They also have, of course, a certain commonality of ideological worldview, created by certain circumstances. public life their country and era, which determined the corresponding commonality the ideological content of their works, and hence the form of its expression. This means that the work of these writers also had some kind of socio-historical regularity. A similar group of writers was, for example, in Russian literature - in the era of the dominance of the classicist trend in it. It was formed by M. Chulkov, A. Ablesimov, A. Izmailov and others. To such groups of writers, whose work is connected only ideological and artistic, but not a program community, the science of literature does not give any "proper names" like "classicism", "sentimentalism", etc.

According to Pospelov, the work of those groups of writers who have only ideological and artistic community, follows call literary trend.

This does not mean that the difference between literary trends and currents is only that the representatives of the first, having an ideological and artistic community of creativity, created creative program, and representatives of the latter could not create it. The literary process is a more complex phenomenon. It often happens that the work of a group of writers, the definition of a country and an era that created and proclaimed a single creative program, has, however, only relative And unilateral creative community, that these writers, in essence, belong not to one, but to two (sometimes more) literary movements.

For this reason, while recognizing one creative program, they understand its provisions in different ways and apply them in different ways. There are, in other words, literary trends that combine the work of writers different currents. Sometimes writers of different, but somehow ideologically close to each other currents programmatically unite in the process of their common ideological and artistic polemics with writers of other currents that are sharply hostile to them.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the direction fixes the commonality of deep spiritual and aesthetic foundations artistic content conditioned by the unity of the cultural and artistic tradition, the uniformity of the worldview of the writers and those facing them life problems and, ultimately, the similarity of the epochal socio-cultural-historical situation. But the world outlook itself, that is, the attitude to the problems posed, the idea of ​​ways and means of resolving them, ideological and artistic concepts, the ideals of writers belonging to the same direction are different.

Proceeding from such positions to the concepts of a literary trend and trend, Pospelov raises the question of their existence in national literatures at various stages of their development. historical development. According to the researcher, at all stages of the development of fiction (starting with literature Ancient Greece) its source has always been the ideological worldview of writers representing various social forces and hence often creating their works on the principle of antithesis. For this reason, if in national literatures before XVII century there were no clearly defined directions, then there were always different trends in them.

Currents existed, for example, in ancient Greek literature classical era its development. Attic democracy created in the 5th century BC. brilliant dramaturgy, anti-aristocratic in ideological orientation, authoritarian-mythological in ideals. It was one of the basic ancient literature of that era. But even earlier, from the VI century BC. in those ancient Greek policies where the slave-owning aristocracy dominated, lyric poetry was actively developing - both civil in content (the works of Theognis from Megara, the odic choral lyrics of Tyrtaeus in Sparta, Pindar in Thebes), and purely personal, in particular love (Alcaeus and Sappho on Lesbos e, Anacreon). This was another main current or even currents in the ancient literature of that era. The appeal of the writers of the militant Attic democracy to dramaturgy, and the aristocratic poets of other cities to lyricism, followed from the peculiarities of the work of both.

Roman classical literature, created in completely different conditions of public life - in the early period of the existence of imperial power, in the "August Age", - a certain duality of its tendencies was characteristic. The poets of that time responded to the ideological and political demands of the new government and created literature to some extent official, referring to the genre of civil or philosophical poem("Aeneid" by Virgil, "Metamorphoses" by Ovid) They were dominated by mythologically authoritarian mindsets. But along with this, the same poets, as well as others, gravitated in their worldview towards an ideological “withdrawal” from the hustle and bustle of the life of Imperial Rome. They contrasted the heavy atmosphere of the capital with the imaginary joys of shepherd life (Virgil's Bucolics), the simplicity of rural labor (his Georgics), the solitary enjoyment of the blessings of life (Horace's Satires), the worries love experiences(“Love poems” by Ovid) or they idealized the good old morals (“Odes” by Horace, “Elegies” by Tibullus). Here, despite the mythological authoritarian worldview, the spontaneous humanistic aspirations of these poets were manifested.

Different currents can also be identified throughout the subsequent development of the literature. So, for example, in English romanticism, researchers distinguish three currents: revolutionary (Byron, Shelley), conservative (Wordsworth, Coleridge. Southey) and London (Keats, Lee Hunt) romantics. In relation to Russian romanticism, they speak of "philosophical", "psychological", "civil" currents. In Russian realism, some researchers distinguish between a "psychological" and a "sociological" trend.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, if literary trends existed in national literatures from the very beginning of their historical life, then literary trends took shape in them only at relatively late stages of development and always basis ideological and artistic content literature of one kind or another. For this reason, it is not literary trends that give life to literary movements and contain them, as some researchers believe, but vice versa - currents can form a single direction at some stage of their development, and before that or later exist outside of it. Thus, the literary trend of Russian noble revolutionism began with the work of A.N. Radishchev, who was not a romantic. Later, motives of civil romance arose in it (Pushkin, Ryleev and others), and it entered the direction of romanticism, along with poets and another, religious-romantic movement (Zhukovsky, Kozlov and others) (Pospelov G.N. Theory of Literature - M., 1987, pp. 140 - 160).

Along with the terms "direction" and "flow" to characterize the associations of writers, the concept " school' and 'grouping'. Literary groupings and schools presuppose a direct ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity of its participants (“lake school” in English romanticism, the “Parnassus” group in France, “ natural school» in Russia, etc.).

The term literary movement usually refers to a group of writers who are bound by a common ideological position and artistic principles, within the same direction or artistic movement. Yes, modernism common name different groupings in the art and literature of the 20th century, which distinguishes a departure from classical traditions, the search for new aesthetic principles, a new approach to the depiction of being, includes such movements as impressionism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, acmeism, futurism, imagism and others

The belonging of artists to one direction or trend does not exclude deep differences between them. creative individuals. In turn, in the individual work of writers, features of various literary trends and trends can manifest themselves. For example, O. Balzac, being a realist, creates romantic novel "Shagreen leather", and Μ. Yu. Lermontov, along with romantic works, writes realistic novel"Hero of our time".

Flow - a smaller unit of the literary process, often within the framework of a direction, characterized by existence in a certain historical period and, as a rule, localization in certain literature. The trend is also based on a common content principles, but the similarity of ideological and artistic concepts is more clearly manifested. Often the commonality of artistic principles in the course forms " art system". So, within the framework French classicism distinguish two currents. One is based on the tradition of rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes ("Cartesian rationalism"), which includes the work of P. Corneille, J. Racine, N. Boileau. Another trend, based mainly on the sensationalist philosophy of P. Gassendi, expressed itself in the ideological principles of such writers as J. La Fontaine, J. B. Molière. In addition, both currents differ in the system used artistic means. In romanticism, two main currents are often distinguished - "progressive" and "conservative", but there are other classifications.

The writer's belonging to one or another direction or trend (as well as the desire to stay outside the existing trends in literature) presupposes a free, personal expression of the author's worldview, his aesthetic and ideological positions. This fact is related to the rather late emergence of trends and trends in European literature - the period of the New Age, when the personal, authorial principle becomes the leading one in literary creativity. This is the fundamental difference between the modern literary process and the development of the literature of the Middle Ages, in which the content and formal features of the texts were "predetermined" by tradition and "canon". The peculiarity of trends and currents lies in the fact that these communities are based on the deep unity of philosophical, aesthetic and other substantive principles in many different, individual author's artistic systems.

Directions and currents should be distinguished from literary schools (and literary groupings).

literary school

A literary school is a small association of writers based on unified artistic principles formulated theoretically - in articles, manifestos, scientific and publicistic statements, designed as "charters" and "rules". Quite often such an association of writers has a leader, the "head of the school" ("the Shchedrin school", the poets of the "Nekrasov school").

As a rule, writers who have created a number of literary phenomena with a high degree of generality - up to a common theme, style, language. Such, for example, was in the XVI century. Pleiades group. It grew out of a circle of French humanist poets who united to study ancient literature, and finally took shape by the end of the 1540s. It was headed by the famous poet P. de Ronsard, and the main theorist was Joashen Du Bellay, who in 1549 in the treatise "Protection and glorification French"expressed the main principles of the school's activities - the development of national poetry in the national language, the development of ancient and Italian poetic forms. The poetic practice of Ronsard, Jodel, Baif and Tiyar - the poets of the Pleiades - not only brought glory to the school, but also laid the foundation for the development of French drama XVII-XVIII centuries, developed the French literary language And various genres lyrics.

Unlike the movement, which is far from always formalized by manifestos, declarations and other documents that reflect its main principles, the school is almost necessarily characterized by such performances. It is important not only the presence of common artistic principles shared by the writers, but also their theoretical awareness of their belonging to the school. "Pleiades" is quite consistent with this.

But many associations of writers, called schools, are named after the place of their existence, although the similarity of the artistic principles of the writers of such associations may not be so obvious. For example, the "lake school", named after the place where it developed (the north-west of England, the Lake District), consisted of romantic poets, far from agreeing with each other in everything. The "leukists" include W. Wordsworth, S. Coleridge, who created the collection "Lyrical Ballads", as well as R. Southey, T. de Quincey and J. Wilson. But the poetic practice of the latter was in many respects different from the ideologist of the school, Wordsworth. De Quincey himself denied the existence of the "lake school" in his memoirs, and Southey often criticized Wordsworth's ideas and poems. But due to the fact that the association of Leikist poets existed, had a similarity of aesthetic and artistic principles reflected in poetic practice, outlined its "program", literary historians traditionally call this group of poets the "lake school".

Concept " literary school"predominantly historical, not typological. In addition to the criteria for the unity of time and place of the existence of the school, the presence of manifestos, declarations and similar artistic practice, circles of writers often represent groups united by a "leader" who has followers who successively develop or copy his artistic principles. Group English religious poets early XVII V. formed the Spencer School. Being influenced by the poetry of their teacher, the Fletcher brothers, W. Brown and J. Wither imitated the imagery, themes, and poetic forms of the creator of The Fairy Queen. The poets of the Spenser school copied even the type of stanza he created for this poem, directly borrowing the allegories and stylistic turns of their teacher. An interesting fact is that the work of the followers of the Spencer poetic school remained on the periphery of the literary process, but the work of E. Spencer himself influenced the poetry of J. Milton, and later J. Keats.

Traditionally, the origin of Russian realism is associated with the "natural school" that existed in the 1840s-1850s, successively connected with the work of N.V. Gogol and developing his artistic principles. The "natural school" is characterized by many features of the concept of "literary school", and it was precisely as a "literary school" that it was perceived by contemporaries. The main ideologist of the "natural school" was V. G. Belinsky. She is referred to early works I. A. Goncharov, N. A. Nekrasov, A. I. Herzen, V. I. Dahl, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. I. Panaev, F. M. Dostoevsky. Representatives of the "natural school" grouped around the leading literary journals of the time - at first " Domestic notes", and then "Contemporary". The collections "Physiology of St. Petersburg" and "Petersburg Collection" became the program for the school, in which the works of these writers and articles by V. G. Belinsky were published. The school had its own system of artistic principles, which most clearly manifested itself V special genre- a physiological essay, as well as in the realistic development of the genres of the story and the novel. "The content of the novel, - wrote V. G. Belinsky, - artistic analysis modern society, the disclosure of those invisible foundations of it, which are hidden from him by habit and unconsciousness ". The features of the "natural school" were also manifested in its poetics: love for details, professional, everyday features, extremely accurate fixation social types, the desire for documentary, the emphasized use of statistical and ethnographic data have become integral features of the works of the "natural school". In the novels and stories of Goncharov, Herzen, the early work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, the evolution of the character, which takes place under the influence of the social environment, was revealed. Of course, the style and language of the authors of the "natural school" was largely different, but the commonality of themes, positivist-oriented philosophy, and the similarity of poetics can be traced in many of their works. Thus, the "natural school" is an example of a combination of many principles of school education - certain temporal and spatial frameworks, the unity of aesthetic and philosophical attitudes, the commonality of formal features, continuity in relation to the "leader", the presence of theoretical declarations.

Examples of schools in the modern literary process are the Lianozovo Group of Poets, the Order of Courtly Mannerists, and many other literary associations.

However, it should be noted that the literary process is not limited to the coexistence and struggle of literary groups, schools, trends and trends. To view it in this way is to schematize literary life era, impoverish the history of literature, since with such a "directional" approach, the most important individual characteristics The writer's works remain out of sight of the researcher, who is looking for common, often schematic moments. Even the leading direction of any period, the aesthetic base of which has become a platform for the artistic practice of many authors, cannot exhaust all the diversity literary facts. Many prominent writers deliberately kept aloof from literary struggle, asserting their philosophical, aesthetic and artistic principles outside the framework of schools, trends, leading trends of a certain era. Directions, currents, schools are, in the words of V. M. Zhirmunsky, “not shelves or boxes”, “on which we “lay out” poets”. "If a poet, for example, is a representative of the era of romanticism, this does not mean that there cannot be realistic tendencies in his work." The literary process is a complex and diverse phenomenon, so one should be extremely careful when using such categories as "flow" and "direction". In addition to them, scientists use other terms when studying the literary process, such as style.

• Belinsky V. G. complete collection works: in 13 volumes. T. 10. M., 1956. S. 106.
• Zhirmunsky V. M. Introduction to Literary Studies. SPb., 1996. S. 419.

Literature like no other kind creative activity person, associated with social and historical life people, being a bright and figurative source of its reflection. Fiction develops together with society, in a certain historical sequence, and we can say that it is a direct example artistic development civilization. Each historical era is characterized by certain moods, views, worldview and worldview, which inevitably manifests itself in artistic literary works.

Common worldview, supported by common artistic principles creation of a literary work among certain groups of writers, forms various literary trends. It is worth saying that the classification and selection of such areas in the history of literature is very conditional. Writers, creating their works in different historical eras, did not even suspect that literary critics would classify them as a literary trend over the years. However, for convenience historical analysis V literary activity such a classification is necessary. It helps to more clearly and structured to understand the complex processes of development of literature and art.

Major literary movements

Each of them is characterized by a number of famous writers, which are united by a clear ideological and aesthetic concept, set out in theoretical works, and a general view of the principles of creation artwork or artistic method, which, in turn, acquires historical and social traits belonging to a certain direction.

In the history of literature, it is customary to distinguish the following main literary trends:

Classicism. It formed as art style and outlook on XVII century. It is based on passion antique art which was taken as a role model. In an effort to achieve simplicity of perfection, similar to ancient models, the classicists developed strict canons of art, such as the unity of time, place and action in drama, which had to be strictly followed. Literary work was emphasized artificial, reasonably and logically organized, rationally built.

All genres were subdivided into high (tragedy, ode, epic), which sang heroic events and mythological subjects, and low - depicting the everyday life of people of the lower classes (comedy, satire, fable). The classicists preferred dramaturgy and created a lot of works specifically for the theatrical stage, using not only words, but also visual images, a plot built in a certain way, facial expressions and gestures, scenery and costumes to express ideas. The entire seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries passed under the shadow of classicism, which was replaced by another direction after the destructive power of the French.

Romanticism is a comprehensive one that powerfully manifested itself not only in literature, but also in painting, philosophy and music, and in each European country it had its specific features. Romantic writers were united by a subjective view of reality and dissatisfaction with the surrounding reality, which forced them to construct other pictures of the world that lead away from reality. Heroes romantic works- powerful extraordinary personalities, rebels, challenging the imperfection of the world, universal evil and dying in the struggle for happiness and universal harmony. Unusual heroes and unusual life circumstances fantasy worlds and unrealistically strong deep feelings, the writers conveyed with the help of certain language their works are very emotional, sublime.

Realism. The pathos and elation of romanticism changed this direction, the main principle of which was the depiction of life in all its earthly manifestations, very real typical heroes in real typical circumstances. Literature, according to realist writers, was supposed to become a textbook of life, so the characters were portrayed in all aspects of personality manifestation - social, psychological, historical. The main source influencing a person, shaping his character and worldview, is the environment, real life circumstances, with which the characters constantly come into conflict due to deep contradictions. Life and images are given in development, showing a certain trend.

Literary trends reflect the most common parameters and features artistic creativity in a certain historical period of the development of society. In turn, within the framework of any direction, several trends can be distinguished, which are represented by writers with similar ideological and artistic attitudes, moral and ethical views, and artistic and aesthetic techniques. So, within the framework of romanticism, there were such currents as civil romanticism. Realist writers were also adherents of various currents. In Russian realism, it is customary to single out a philosophical and sociological trend.

Literary trends and currents - a classification created within the framework of literary theories. It is based on philosophical, political and aesthetic views epochs and generations of people on a certain historical stage development of society. However, literary trends can go beyond one historical era, so they are often identified with artistic method, common to a group of writers who lived at different times, but expressing similar spiritual and ethical principles.

Literary direction- often identified with the artistic method. Denotes a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic aesthetic attitudes, and the means used. In the struggle and change of direction, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed. It is customary to single out the following literary directions:
Classicism
Romanticism
Sentimentalism
Naturalism
Realism
Symbolism (fr.) is one of the largest trends in art (in literature, music and painting), which arose in France in the 1870s and 80s. and reached greatest development on turn of XIX and XX centuries, primarily in France itself, Belgium and Russia. The Symbolists radically changed not only different kinds art, but also the attitude towards it. Their experimental nature, desire for innovation, cosmopolitanism and wide range of influences have become a model for most modern trends art.

Acmeism (from Greek - “highest degree, peak, flowering, flowering time”) is a literary movement that opposes symbolism and arose at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia. Acmeists proclaimed materiality, objectivity of themes and images, the accuracy of the word.
The formation of acmeism is closely connected with the activities of the "Workshop of poets", central figure which was the organizer of acmeism N. S. Gumilyov.
The term "acmeism" was proposed in 1912 by N. Gumilyov and S. M. Gorodetsky: in their opinion, symbolism in crisis is being replaced by a direction that generalizes the experience of predecessors and leads the poet to new heights of creative achievements.
Futurism. The author of the word and the founder of the direction is the Italian poet Filippo Marinetti (the poem "Red Sugar"). The name itself implies a cult of the future and discrimination of the past along with the present. Futurism can be viewed as a kind of fusion of Nietzscheanism and the manifesto of the communist party. The dynamics of movement should replace the static of posing sculptures, paintings and portraits. The camera and the movie camera will replace the imperfection of painting and the eye.

Imagism
Literary current- often identified with literary group and school. Denotes a collection creative people, which are characterized ideological and artistic proximity and program-aesthetic unity. Otherwise, a literary movement is a kind of literary movement.

Postmodernism(French postmodernisme - after modernism) - a term denoting structurally similar phenomena in world public life and culture of the second half of the 20th century. The origin of postmodernism is the 60s - 70s, connected and logically follows from the processes of Modernism as a reaction to the crisis of its ideas, as well as to the so-called death of foundations: God (Nietzsche), author (Bart), man (humanities). The term appears during the First World War in the work of R. Panwitz “Crisis European culture» (1914). In 1934, in his book An Anthology of Spanish and Latin American Poetry, the literary critic F. de Onis uses it to denote a reaction to modernism.

Expressionism(from lat. expressio, “expression”) - avant-garde trend in European art, developed at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, characterized by a tendency to express the emotional characteristics of the image (s) (usually a person or group of people) or emotional state the artist himself. Expressionism is represented in many art forms including painting, literature, theatre, cinematography, architecture and music.

Decadence (decadence)

Decadence (from late Latin - decline) - the general name for the crisis phenomena of European culture of the 2nd half of XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, marked by moods of hopelessness, rejection of life, tendencies of individualism. A complex and contradictory phenomenon, has a source of crisis public consciousness, the confusion of many artists before the sharp social antagonisms of reality. Art's rejection of political and civic themes was considered by decadent artists to be a manifestation and an indispensable condition for freedom of creativity. Constant themes are the motives of non-existence and death, longing for spiritual values ​​and ideals.

Avant-garde (fr. Avant-garde, “advanced detachment”) is a generalized name for the trends in European art that arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, expressed in a polemical-combat form (hence the name itself, taken from the military-political vocabulary). Its time frame is considered to be the period from 1870 to 1938 [source not specified 167 days]. The avant-garde is characterized by an experimental approach to artistic creation that goes beyond classical aesthetics, using original, innovative means of expression, emphasized by symbolism. artistic images.
The concept of avant-garde is largely eclectical in its essence. This term refers to a number of schools and trends in art, sometimes having a diametrically opposed ideological basis.

Modernism (Italian modernismo - “modern trend”; from Latin modernus - “modern, recent”) is a trend in art and literature of the 20th century, characterized by a break with the previous historical experience artistic creativity, the desire to establish new non-traditional beginnings in art, the continuous renewal of artistic forms, as well as the conventionality (schematization, abstraction) of style. The modernist paradigm was one of the leading Western civilization the first half of the 20th century; in the second half of the century, it was subjected to extensive criticism. The term "modernism" is inherent only in the domestic art history school, in Western sources it is the term "modern". Since in Russian aesthetics "modern" means an artistic style that precedes modernism, it is necessary to distinguish between these two concepts in order to avoid confusion.