The concept of culture is central to cultural studies. In its modern meaning, it entered the circulation of European social thought from the 2nd floor. 18th century

Culture is an integral part of human existence and one of the fundamental characteristics used to study certain countries, regions, civilizations. Having arisen together with man, culture evolved along with him, within its framework, original and often contradictory ideas and trends were born, flourished and declined, but it itself has always remained relatively monolithic.

Culture is a specific way of organizing and developing human life, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in spiritual values, in the totality of people's relations to nature, to each other and to themselves.

Culture characterizes the features of consciousness, behavior and activities of people in specific areas public life(culture of work, culture of politics and others).

The word "culture" comes from the Latin, meaning the cultivation of the soil, its cultivation, i.e. a change in a natural object under the influence of a person, in contrast to those changes that are caused by natural causes. Already in the original content, one can distinguish an important feature - the unity of culture, man and his activities. For example, the Hellenes saw in their upbringing their main difference from the "wild", "uncivilized barbarians". In the Middle Ages, the word "culture" was associated with personal qualities, with signs of personal improvement. In the Renaissance, personal perfection began to be understood as correspondence to the humanistic ideal. And from the point of view of the enlighteners of the 18th century. culture meant "reasonableness". Giambattista Vico (1668-1744), Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803), Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755), Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) believed that culture is manifested in the rationality of social orders and political institutions, and is measured by achievements in science and art. The goal of culture and the higher purpose of reason are the same: to make people happy. It was already a concept of culture, called eudaimonic ( a direction that considers happiness, bliss, the highest goal of human life).

From 2nd floor 19th century The concept of "culture" acquires the status of a scientific category. It ceases to mean only high level development of society. This concept increasingly began to intersect with such concepts as "civilization" and "socio-economic formation". This concept was introduced into scientific circulation by Karl Marx. It constitutes the foundation of the materialistic understanding of history.

In the 20th century V scientific ideas about culture, the touch of romanticism finally disappears, giving it the meaning of uniqueness, creative impulse, high spirituality. The French philosopher Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980) noted that culture does not save or justify anyone or anything. But she is the work of man, in her he seeks his reflection, in her he recognizes himself, only in this critical mirror can he see his face.

In general, there is no single answer to what culture is. Now, according to some researchers, there are about a thousand definitions of culture.

The concept of "culture", - noted in the philosophical dictionary, - means a historically defined level of development of society, the creative forces and abilities of a person, expressed in the types and forms of organization of people's life and activities, as well as in the material and spiritual values ​​​​created by them.

Therefore, the world of culture is the result of the efforts of the people themselves, aimed at improving, transforming what is given by nature itself. One can cite as an example a poem by Nikolai Zabolotsky (1903-1958):

Man has two worlds:

One who created us

Another, who we are from the century

We create to the best of our ability

That. to understand the essence of culture is possible only through the prism of the activities of man, the peoples inhabiting the planet. Culture does not exist without man.

A person is not born social, but only in the process of activity becomes one. Education and upbringing is nothing but the mastery of culture, the process of passing it on from one generation to another. Therefore, culture means the introduction of a person to society, society.

Any person, first of all, masters the culture that was created before him, thereby mastering the experience of his predecessors, but at the same time he makes his contribution, thereby enriching him.

Culture as a world of human meanings

Culture is a special sphere of social life, in which the creative nature of a person is most fully realized, and first of all it is art, education, science. But only such an understanding of culture would impoverish its content. The most complete is such an understanding of culture, which reveals the essence of human existence as the realization of creativity and freedom.

The attitude of a person to the world is determined by meaning, in turn, meaning correlates any phenomenon, any object with a person. If something is devoid of meaning, it, as a rule, ceases to exist for a person. Meaning is, as it were, an intermediary between the world and man. The meaning is not always realized by a person and not every meaning can be expressed rationally. To a greater extent, meanings lurk in the human unconscious. But the meaning can also become universally valid, uniting many people. It is these meanings that form the culture.

T. O. culture is a way of creative self-realization of a person through meaning. Culture appears before a person as a world of meanings, which inspires and unites people into a community (nation). Culture is a universal way that a person makes the whole world “his”, i.e. turns into a "house of human existence", into a bearer of human meanings.

When is the birth of a new culture? In order to be born new culture, it is necessary that new meanings be fixed in symbolic forms and be recognized by other people as a model, i.e. became semantic dominants.

Dominant - the dominant idea, the main feature.

Culture is the result of free human creativity, but it also keeps it within its semantic framework. In the era of cultural transformations, old meanings do not always satisfy a person. New semantic paradigms are created, according to the Russian philosopher Nikolai Aleksandrovich Berdyaev, by individual creativity.

Structure of culture

For culture as a social phenomenon, the concepts of cultural statics and cultural dynamics are fundamental. The first characterizes culture at rest, immutability and repetition, the second considers culture as a process in motion and change.

The main elements of culture exist in 2 forms - material and spiritual. The totality of material elements constitutes material culture, and non-material elements constitute spiritual culture.

An important feature of material culture is its non-identity with either the material life of society or material production.

The material culture includes the culture of labor and material production, the culture of everyday life, the culture of topos, i.e. place of residence (dwellings, houses, cities), culture of attitude to one's own body, physical culture.

The totality of non-material elements forms the spiritual side of cultural statics: norms, rules, patterns, ceremonies, rituals, myths, ideas, customs. Any object of intangible culture needs a material intermediary. For example, books are such an intermediary for knowledge.

Spiritual culture is a multi-layered formation and includes cognitive, moral, artistic, legal, pedagogical, religious and other cultures.

According to many culturologists, there are types of culture that cannot be unambiguously attributed only to the material or spiritual realm. These are, for example, economic, political, aesthetic cultures.

In cultural statics, elements are delimited in time and space. Thus, a part of the material and spiritual culture, created by past generations, withstood the test of time and passed on to the next generations, is called cultural heritage. Heritage is an important factor in uniting the nation, a means of uniting society in times of crisis.

In addition to cultural heritage, cultural statics also includes the concept cultural area- geographical area, inside kt y different cultures similarities are found in the main features.

On a global scale, cultural heritage is expressed by the so-called cultural universals - norms, values, rules, traditions, properties that are inherent in all cultures, regardless of geographical location, historical time and social structure society.

As already noted, culture is a very complex, layered system. It is customary to divide culture according to its carriers. Depending on this, world and national cultures are distinguished.

World culture is a synthesis best achievements all national cultures of various peoples inhabiting the planet.

National culture, in turn, acts as a synthesis of cultures of various classes, social strata and groups of the corresponding society. originality national culture, its originality and originality are manifested both in the spiritual (language, literature, music, painting, religion) and material (features of the economic structure, traditions of labor and production) spheres of life and activity.

The set of values, beliefs, traditions and customs that guide the majority of members of society is called the dominant culture. But since society breaks up into many groups (national, social, professional, etc.), each of them gradually forms its own culture, i.e. system of values ​​and rules of conduct. Such small cultural worlds are called subcultures. They talk about the youth subculture, the subculture of national minorities, the professional subculture, and so on.

The subculture differs from the dominant one in language, outlook on life, and manners of behavior. Such differences may be strongly pronounced, but the subculture does not oppose the dominant culture.

And the subculture that opposes the dominant one, i.e. is in conflict with dominant values, is called counterculture.

The underworld subculture opposes human culture, and the hippie youth movement, which became widespread in the 60s and 70s. in the countries of Western Europe and America, denied the dominant American values: social values, moral norms and moral ideals of the consumer society, political loyalty, conformism and rationalism.

Conformism (from the late Latin Conformis - similar, consistent) - opportunism, passive acceptance of existing orders, prevailing opinions, lack of one's own positions.



Culture is a diverse concept. This scientific term appeared in Ancient Rome, where the word "cultura" meant the cultivation of the land, upbringing, education. With frequent use, this word has lost its original meaning and began to denote the most diverse aspects of human behavior and activity.

The sociological dictionary gives the following definitions of the concept of "culture": "Culture is a specific way of organizing and developing human life, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in spiritual values, in the totality of people's relations to nature, among themselves and to ourselves."

Culture is phenomena, properties, elements of human life that qualitatively distinguish a person from nature. This difference is connected with the conscious transforming activity of man.

The concept of "culture" can be used to characterize the behavior of the consciousness and activities of people in certain areas of life (work culture, political culture). The concept of "culture" can fix the way of life of an individual (personal culture), a social group (national culture) and the whole society as a whole.

Culture can be divided according to various criteria into different types:

1) by subject (bearer of culture) into social, national, class, group, personal;

2) according to the functional role - to the general one (for example, in the system general education) and special (professional);

3) by genesis - into folk and elite;

4) by type - into material and spiritual;

5) by nature - into religious and secular.

2. The concept of material and non-material cultures

All social heritage can be viewed as a synthesis of material and non-material cultures. Non-material culture includes spiritual activity and its products. It combines knowledge, morality, upbringing, enlightenment, law, religion. Non-material (spiritual) culture includes ideas, habits, customs and beliefs that people create and then maintain. Spiritual culture also characterizes the inner wealth of consciousness, the degree of development of the person himself.

Material culture includes the entire sphere of material activity and its results. It consists of man-made items: tools, furniture, cars, buildings and other items that are constantly being modified and used by people. Non-material culture can be viewed as a way of society's adaptation to the biophysical environment through its appropriate transformation.

Comparing both of these types of culture with each other, one can come to the conclusion that material culture should be considered as the result of non-material culture. The destruction caused by the Second World War was the most significant in the history of mankind, but despite this, cities were quickly restored, as people have not lost the knowledge and skill necessary to restore them. In other words, non-destroyed non-material culture makes it quite easy to restore material culture.

3. Sociological approach to the study of culture

The purpose of the sociological study of culture is to identify the producers of cultural values, the channels and means of its dissemination, to assess the influence of ideas on social actions, on the formation or disintegration of groups or movements.

Sociologists approach the phenomenon of culture with different points vision:

1) subject, considering culture as a static entity;

2) valuable, giving great attention creativity;

3) activity, introducing the dynamics of culture;

4) symbolic, asserting that culture consists of symbols;

5) gaming: culture is a game where it is customary to play by your own rules;

6) textual, where the main attention is paid to language as a means of transmitting cultural symbols;

7) communicative, considering culture as a means of transmitting information.

4. Main theoretical approaches in the study of culture

Functionalism. Representatives - B. Malinovsky, A. Ratk-liff-Brown.

Each element of culture is functionally necessary to meet certain human needs. Elements of culture are considered from the point of view of their place in an integral cultural system. The system of culture is a characteristic of a social system. "Normal condition social systems- self-sufficiency, balance, harmonic unity. It is from the point of view of this "normal" state that the functionality of the elements of culture is assessed.

Symbolism. Representatives - T. Parsons, K. Girtz.

The elements of culture are, first of all, symbols that mediate the relationship of a person with the world (ideas, beliefs, value models, etc.).

Adaptive-activity approach. Within the framework of this approach, culture is considered as a way of activity, as well as a system of non-biological mechanisms that stimulate, program and implement the adaptive and transformative activities of people. In human activity, two sides of it interact: internal and external. In the course of internal activity, motives are formed, the meaning that people give to their actions, the goals of actions are selected, schemes and projects are developed. It is culture as a mentality that fills internal activity with a certain system of values, offers choices and preferences associated with it.

5. Elements of culture

Language is a sign system for establishing communications. Signs distinguish between linguistic and non-linguistic. In turn, languages ​​are natural and artificial. Language is considered as the meanings and meanings contained in the language, which are generated by social experience and the diverse relationship of man to the world.

Language is a relay of culture. Obviously, culture is spread by both gesture and facial expressions, but language is the most capacious, accessible relay of culture.

Values ​​are ideas about the significant, important, which determine the life of a person, allow you to distinguish between desirable and undesirable, what should be strived for and what should be avoided (assessment - attribution to value).

Distinguish values:

1) terminal (goal values);

2) instrumental (mean values).

Values ​​determine the meaning of purposeful activity, regulate social interactions. In other words, values ​​guide a person in the world around and motivate. The subject's value system includes:

1) meaningful life values ​​- ideas about good and evil, happiness, purpose and meaning of life;

2) universal values:

a) vital (life, health, personal security, welfare, education, etc.);

b) public recognition (industriousness, social status, etc.);

c) interpersonal communication (honesty, compassion, etc.);

d) democratic (freedom of speech, sovereignty, etc.);

3) particular values ​​(private):

a) attachment to a small homeland, family;

b) fetishism (belief in God, striving for absolutism, etc.). Today there is a serious breakdown, a transformation of the value system.

Norms of admissible actions. Norms are forms of regulation of behavior in a social system and expectations that determine the range of acceptable actions. There are the following types of norms:

1) formalized rules (everything that is officially recorded);

2) moral rules (associated with people's ideas);

3) patterns of behavior (fashion).

The emergence and functioning of norms, their place in the socio-political organization of society are determined by the objective need to streamline social relations. Norms, ordering the behavior of people, regulate the most diverse types of social relations. They develop into a certain hierarchy, distributed according to the degree of their social significance.

beliefs and knowledge. The most important element of culture are beliefs and knowledge. Beliefs are certain spiritual state, a property that combines intellectual, sensual and volitional components. Any beliefs include in their structure certain information, information about this phenomenon, the norm of behavior, knowledge. The connection between knowledge and beliefs is ambiguous. The reasons may be different: when knowledge is contrary to human development trends, when knowledge is ahead of reality, etc.

Ideology. As noted above, as their basis, beliefs have certain information, statements that are justified at the theoretical level. Accordingly, values ​​can be described, argued in the form of a strict, logically justified doctrine or in the form of spontaneously formed ideas, opinions, feelings.

In the first case, we are dealing with ideology, in the second - with customs, traditions, rituals that influence and convey their content at the socio-psychological level.

Ideology appears as a complex and multi-layered formation. It can act as the ideology of all mankind, the ideology of a particular society, the ideology of a class, a social group and an estate. At the same time, different ideologies interact, which, on the one hand, ensures the stability of society, and on the other hand, allows you to choose, develop values ​​that express new trends in the development of society.

Rites, customs and traditions. A rite is a set of symbolic collective actions that embody certain social ideas, ideas, norms of behavior and evoke certain collective feelings (for example, wedding ceremony). The strength of the rite is in its emotional and psychological impact on people.

A custom is a form of social regulation of the activities and attitudes of people taken from the past, which is reproduced in a particular society or social group and is familiar to its members. The custom consists in steadfast adherence to the prescriptions received from the past. A custom is an unwritten rule of conduct.

Traditions are social and cultural heritage passed down from generation to generation and preserved for a long time. Traditions function in all social systems and are a necessary condition for their life. A disdainful attitude to traditions leads to a violation of continuity in the development of culture, to the loss of valuable achievements of the past. Conversely, worship of tradition breeds conservatism and stagnation in public life.

6. Functions of culture

The communicative function is associated with the accumulation and transmission of social experience (including intergenerational), the transmission of messages in the course of joint activities. The existence of such a function makes it possible to define culture as a special way of inheriting social information.

Regulatory is manifested in the creation of guidelines and the system of control of human actions.

Integrating is associated with the creation of a system of meanings, values ​​and norms, as the most important condition for the stability of social systems.

Consideration of the functions of culture makes it possible to define culture as a mechanism for the value-normative integration of social systems. This is a characteristic of the integral property of social systems.

7. Cultural universals and diversity of cultural forms

cultural universals. J. Murdoch singled out common features common to all cultures. These include:

1) joint work;

3) education;

4) the presence of rituals;

5) kinship systems;

6) rules for the interaction of the sexes;

The emergence of these universals is connected with the needs of man and human communities. Cultural universals appear in variety specific options culture. They can be compared in connection with the existence of East-West supersystems, national culture and small systems (subcultures): elite, popular, mass. The diversity of cultural forms raises the problem of the comparability of these forms.

Cultures can be compared by elements of culture; manifestation of cultural universals.

elite culture. Its elements are created by professionals, it is focused on a trained audience.

Folk culture is created by anonymous creators. Its creation and operation are inseparable from Everyday life.

Mass culture. These are cinema, print, pop music, fashion. It is publicly available, targeted at the widest audience, the consumption of its products does not require special training. The emergence of mass culture is due to certain prerequisites:

1) the progressive process of democratization (destruction of estates);

2) industrialization and the associated urbanization (the density of contacts increases);

3) the progressive development of means of communication (the need for joint activities and recreation). Subcultures. These are parts of a culture that belong to certain

social groups or associated with certain activities (youth subculture). The language takes the form of jargon. Certain activities give rise to specific names.

Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Ethnocentrism and relativism are extreme points of view in the study of the diversity of cultural forms.

The American sociologist William Summer called ethnocentrism a view of society in which a certain group is considered central, and all other groups are measured and correlated with it.

Ethnocentrism makes one cultural form the standard against which we measure all other cultures: in our opinion, they will be good or bad, right or wrong, but always in relation to our own culture. This is manifested in such expressions as "chosen people", "true teaching", "super race", and in negative ones - "backward peoples", "primitive culture", "rude art".

Numerous studies of organizations conducted by sociologists from different countries show that people tend to overestimate their own organizations and underestimate all others.

The basis of cultural relativism is the assertion that members of one social group cannot understand the motives and values ​​of other groups if they analyze these motives and values ​​in the light of their own culture. In order to achieve understanding, to understand another culture, it is necessary to connect its specific features with the situation and the characteristics of its development. Each cultural element must be related to the characteristics of the culture of which it is a part. The value and significance of this element can only be considered in the context of a particular culture.

The most rational way of development and perception of culture in society is a combination of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism, when an individual, feeling pride in the culture of his group or society and expressing adherence to samples of this culture, is able to understand other cultures, the behavior of members of other social groups, recognizing their right to existence.

Understanding the phenomenon of culture is characterized by complexity and versatility. This is evidenced by the wide variety of interpretations of this concept. It should be emphasized that in the psychological, philosophical and culturological literature a fairly complete analysis of the evolution of the concept of "culture" is given and a conclusion is made about the strong dependence of the understanding of culture and the prospects for its development on various methodological, theoretical-cognitive, as well as ideological, socio-political attitudes of researchers.

The authors develop various structural-systemic models of culture, each of which makes it possible to single out the essential features of culture that determine the ways of its formation in humans. The spread of methodological positions expressively reflects the diversity of interpretations of the concept of "culture". Different researchers understand it as:

• way of human activity;
• "work experience";
• embodied values;
• a specific way of organizing and developing human life activity, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in spiritual values, in the totality of people's relations to nature, to each other, to themselves;
• "dialogue of cultures";
• a system of results of human activity, which carries the accumulated experience accumulated by the mind;
• the embodiment of the creative forces of society and man in certain cultural values;
• a mechanism that regulates and regulates the behavior and activities of a person in a particular society, where a person acts as a carrier, a subject of this culture;
• as a process of creative self-realization of the essential forces, abilities of a person, expressing the measure of a person's power over the external and over his own mental and physical nature.

Analyzing such a variety of interpretations of the phenomenon of culture, three main approaches can be distinguished: axiological, activity and personal.

According to the acmeological approach, culture is understood as a set of material and spiritual values ​​created by mankind; it is also noted that culture embraces the values ​​recognized by a particular group, and an individual's assessment of his behavior in terms of these values ​​is the most important means of satisfying such an essential human need as the need for the meaning of life.

It is also important to note that culture is considered not only as an experience, where it is associated with the modern system of reproduction of human activity, but also the level of phenomena is distinguished, which is represented by a set of programs for future, potentially possible types and forms of human activity. At the same time, culture acts as a project human existence, containing a multifaceted composition of ideas, values, patterns of behavior that play a huge formative role in the development of civilization, as well as in the development of an individual. Here, the social significance of culture lies in its prognostic capabilities, which play the role of models of the needful future. The activity approach to culture is expressed in its interpretation as a specific way of activity, as a way of realizing the creative forces and abilities of a person in a specific activity carried out from the point of view of social significance. They also single out the technological nature of culture, understanding it as an established system of norms that streamline the activities, interaction and communication of people. At the same time, the social significance of culture is determined by the fact that it is culture that forms the socially directed activity of a person, orienting him to the transformation of the environment and the self-development of the individual associated with this. As a path to culture, the implementation of certain activities for the reproduction of norms with the application of a certain effort by the individual is considered here.

Culture as an activity implies the need to consider such historically determined parameters of the psyche as orientation, motivational sphere, ways to achieve the goals set, and finally, the goals themselves, in other words, consideration of the most important psychological realities that formed the basis of methodological searches.

The peculiarity of the personal approach is expressed in the fact that culture is presented as a certain property of the individual, manifested in the ability to self-control, the creative realization of one's activities, thoughts, feelings. In this aspect, culture is spoken of as a measure of human development, as well as rule-making, i.e., the creation of new cultural norms when a person not only mastered the field of professional norms, but made this tradition the background against which he built his “figure” (from the point of view of the law of figure and background in Gestalt psychology). At the same time, the essence of culture as a process of creative self-realization of the essential forces and abilities of a person comes to the fore. In this case, the main importance is attached to the internal position of the individual, and the level of development of culture is judged by the degree of harmony of this position, i.e., by the extent to which such a personal position meets social requirements, to what extent the samples created by the individual in their social significance can become part of human culture.

We find an attempt to overcome such an interpretation of personality culture in psychological research, where, based on the understanding of culture as a social mechanism for the accumulation, storage and transmission of information of social value, an understanding of personality culture as a system of knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, abilities, skills that promotes the use of accumulated social information and its translation into all aspects of life. On the basis of such an understanding of culture, they talk about the culture of communication, behavior, appearance, work, life, rest, family relations, thinking, feelings, speech, health.

In acmeological studies, culture is considered as a personal and activity characteristic of a person. In this case, the socio-philosophical understanding of culture in its humanistic orientation is decisive, since it is derived from the genetic connection between the individual and activity and implies the socio-cultural regulatory activity of the individual in mastering the subject of activity. Culture here acts as a system of ideas, principles, beliefs, abilities, allowing the subject to identify the closest to the optimal way to improve his life, ensuring the effective performance of activities.

Considering culture as a personal and activity characteristic of a person, we single out the concept of “general cultural parameters of a person”.

In the characterization of a person there is such a generally recognized concept - "cultural level". This is an integrating indicator of the development of the essential forces achieved by the social subject. This concept is also interpreted broadly: in relation to a group, stratum, country, class, society as a whole.

The concept of "cultural level" of the individual reflects the degree of familiarization with global values, ideas, the volume and quality of acquired knowledge, acquired skills and abilities. The cultural level of the individual characterizes in the very general view the degree of mastery of what has been accumulated by mankind in the course of historical development. The main sources of increase cultural level are education, upbringing, self-improvement.

• cultural-special level;
• general cultural level.

Both components in unity characterize the personality, but their development can be different, so it makes sense to consider them separately.

The cultural-special level is characterized by the educational, qualification parameters of the individual and the degree of application of the scientific and technical potential, civilizational achievements, own developments of a particular specialist in a particular area of ​​life, creativity. The level of education and qualifications should be considered in the socio-economic context, taking into account the effectiveness of its use, the degree to which the content of education and qualifications correspond to the nature and specifics of work, and the requirements for the workplace (service) place. An important component of the cultural-special level is the degree of application of scientific, technical, civilizational achievements, scientific discoveries in the system of professional activity.

The general cultural level of personality development characterizes the degree of active attitude to spiritual culture, potential and actual cultural activities, the system of costs for it, motivation and selectivity, aesthetic tastes, assessments, indicators of the moral development of the individual. The high general cultural level of the individual and the whole society is a factor contributing to the development and strengthening of the state. The general cultural level of personality development is characterized by a number of specific parameters: semantic, meaningful and qualitative values, which make it possible to single out a certain important personal element of culture and make it possible in their totality to make an essential assessment of an individual. It is appropriate, highlighting the general cultural parameters of the personality, to rank them according to their importance. At the same time, however, it should be taken into account that any social parameters are very mobile and multivariate in their expression, and any ranking is relative. Nevertheless, it is necessary to put forward such a general cultural parameter as civilized naturalness in the first place. The unusual sounding of the name of this parameter cannot be an obstacle in a person's understanding of himself as a natural being, endowed with natural, vital forces with an active, natural gift. Moreover, the concept of "civilized naturalness" reveals the substantial internal character of culture.

The natural essence of a person plays the role of an indispensable prerequisite and an essential determinant of his life. Human actions, whatever they may be, in fact, nothing more than a manifestation of the forces of nature in general. At the same time, the position that all the natural inclinations of a living being are intended for perfect and expedient development is very important. The naturalness of the individual is organically built into social life. A meaningful and “cultivated” naturalness of a person cannot be considered otherwise than as a condition for the cultural development of society, its survival.

In the teachings of I. P. Pavlov, in Freudianism, neo-Freudianism, modern social and psychological research, there is a significant scientific basis for analyzing the influence of a person’s natural qualities on his life, on the life of society. But the natural qualities of a person are not just a background of social existence, but a direct factor in this existence. Natural mechanisms are included in the social life of a person, influence it and at the same time are subject to its influence.

The parameter "civilized naturalness" means that a person is aware of himself as an integral, integral and inseparable part of nature and at the same time elevates himself above a number of natural instincts and the naturalness of satisfying physiological needs in accordance with the rules of social life, moral and moral norms, common sense and scientific validity. The parameter "civilized naturalness" is difficult to fit into the framework of the optimal number of characteristics, because the number of natural qualities of a person is infinitely large. But the main ones that are relevant today can be formulated as follows:

• awareness of oneself as part of nature, respect for nature, respect for oneself as a natural being;
• the ability to measure the natural with the personal and social, the ability to morally and ethically regulate personal-natural cohabitation in acceptable forms (body culture, sexual culture, civilized life, etc.);
• attitude to the natural world as a "relative", "partner" and "friend" (ecological culture, fusion with the rhythms of nature, etc.);
• treating their own kind as members of the same family. Humanity in the broadest and noblest sense of the term.

The second general cultural parameter - education - is formed as a result of learning - the main form of human activity in the field of education. The term "learning" (as a process) means the assimilation of knowledge, experience and culture. The main components of the learning process as the formation of the “education” parameter are analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, fixation (reinforcement), creativity. The most important, practically significant element of learning is the assimilation of experience. The mechanism for the implementation of this element is based on assimilation (inclusion of a new social object in traditional schemes) and accommodation (adjustment of the original schemes to new objects by changing the structure of the latter). Assimilation and accommodation, by their combination, balance the mismatch between the organism and the environment in the process of assimilation of experience. The accumulation of cultural formations occurs in the course of the implementation of diverse, historically established forms of activity: work, life, knowledge, communication, teaching, interaction, play, creativity. The formation of a person, the accumulation of properties and qualities reflected in the “education” parameter, occur in the process of ascent from elementary communication with carriers of social information and behavior to play, from play to study, from study to work and creativity. Teaching can be viewed as a preparatory phase for the formation of the subject as a bearer of culture. Teaching as a condition for the accumulation of content for the formation of the “education” parameter is a necessary preparatory stage for mastering culture, including a person in a full-fledged social life, in labor, creative activity. And activity is always based on the achievements of the culture of a particular society, which “flow” into a person through teaching and practical activities. Teaching is not limited to cognition, although the cognitive-orientational side plays a leading role in teaching. Teaching as a process of accumulation of content for the parameter "education" involves the assimilation of experience, but not any, but a sample, norm, cultural achievement that has a value. Teaching as the assimilation of samples and norms does not take place in the form of a simple translation, but only under the condition of active joint-separate activity of the teacher and the student. The measure of activity predetermines the quality of learning and the accumulation of education. In the course of learning, in parallel with the assimilation of general cultural experience, the acquisition of own experience individual.

Teaching is the main content of education, and education can be viewed as a certain system of educational forms of activity focused on social order, on the socio-cultural needs of society.

Teaching as a process is not limited only to the mastery of individual values, is associated with the formation of not only the orientation and skills of functional actions, but goes to a broader process - socialization, the formation of personality as a subject of this system. social connections, self-development and is one of the forms of education. Therefore, the formation of the "education" parameter implies the formation of the "education" parameter.

In the course of teaching and upbringing, it is necessary to provide assistance to the individual I in transferring it from the scale of situational existence to the space of existence of the culture of the community. Mandatory element teaching was and remains the authority of the teacher, trust in the teacher, awe of scientific knowledge, its producers. The most important component of the “education” parameter is the spiritual saturation of education, which is embodied in the state of the individual. Spiritual saturation has a certain structure, including:

• norms as historically selected patterns of communication in the course of educational activities. Samples act as original casts from the previous rituals, customs, spiritual achievements of the people (ethnos, society);
• the influence of the teacher's personality as the most clearly expressed, accessible, living expression of an abstract image, norm, meaning, spiritual and professional orientation;
• the spiritual component of the personality model, i.e., the system of ideas about who a person is formed into.

Full-fledged education is impossible without the formation of a well-defined humanitarian environment, without the deployment of a field of spiritual quest in history, art, philosophy, science, without marking the horizons of freedom and creativity of the individual.

A measure of "human education" is a steady need for continuous education. The main way to provide spiritual education is the formation of individuality through open spaces of intellectual, moral, aesthetic quests, through the self-acquisition of one's spiritual self through the perception of the spirituality of human culture.

The general cultural parameter "education" means the level of formation of such components as the development of the cultural achievements of mankind, preparedness for specific types of activities, creativity, readiness for constant self-improvement and development of one's own knowledge, realization of creative potentials.

The third general cultural parameter of a personality is its legal maturity. Law acts as a universal normative regulator of human behavior. By means of law, general social problems are solved. Fulfillment of the principle of the rule of law is the most important sign of the stability of society. Law creates a legal basis for the fight against arbitrariness, violation of generally accepted norms of behavior. Outside and apart from law, it is impossible to ensure the security and personal freedom of people, the development of initiative, entrepreneurship, and creativity. Law denotes a certain freedom of behavior of people, contributes to the establishment of universal values.

In the regulation of social relations, law interacts with other social norms, primarily with moral norms, with moral norms. Morality is an integral part of the spiritual life of society. Moral norms get their expression in public opinion, works fiction, in journalism, religious postulates, etc. Morality and law are closely interconnected as regulators of people's behavior. At the same time, they have many common features, but also significant differences. Law, although it belongs, like morality, to the field of people's spiritual life, is a set of norms, rules of conduct established and sanctioned by the state, fixed in legal acts. Moral norms are formed in the process of approval, development moral views, ideals of goodness, truth, justice, etc.

The legal maturity of a person is such a level of legal and moral fullness of consciousness that allows one to harmoniously, conflict-free and effectively fulfill one's official duties, to realize one's vital needs with optimal "constraint of freedom". The assimilation of legal and moral norms by a person takes place throughout life and has a theoretical and practical level. The legal maturity of an individual largely depends on the legal maturity of the whole society.

The concept of "legal maturity of society" includes the level of development of law, legislation, awareness of it in the social environment, as well as the state of law and order. The most important indicator of the legal maturity of a society is the level of legal awareness, i.e. the totality of legal views, feelings, in which the attitude to the current law is expressed, the degree of consciousness of the need to implement laws.

The legal maturity of the individual is manifested:

• in knowledge of the current legislation;
• respectful attitude to law in general, to one's rights and obligations, to the rights of other citizens;
• the desire of a citizen to behave in accordance with the prescription of legal norms.

The legal maturity of a person is characterized by a habit in the implementation of legal norms. Society is interested in its systematic formation. Social activity acts as the fourth general cultural parameter of the personality. Under the level of social activity, we understand the intensity of the development by the individual of the totality of opportunities provided by society for a decent life and the degree of participation of a person in the problems of the development of society. As society develops, a system of socio-cultural standards is formed in it, which a person learns, according to which she builds her behavior (socially active, passive, deviant).

Realization of one's own social functions, social role is due to the level of education, biopsychic qualities, the level of civilized naturalness. Any society appreciates, and in times of profound change, actively promotes competent, resolute, energetic people who are able to go to complicated socio-psychological, uncomfortable areas of work. The effect of deepening the quality of the individual in the performance of a social role in a specific status position is very important. The systematic fulfillment of a social role improves the system of personality traits. But the social-role sphere of a person does not develop automatically, but in a complex knot of influencing factors that can be combined into several groups: selection, prescription, autonomy and motivation.

Selection factors inexorably act in society, "sorting" people according to the signs of abilities, education, special qualities. The social environment selects people with well-defined properties and qualities into the circle of performers in various fields of activity. This "natural" selection becomes a fixing factor, as a rule, predetermining the entire future fate and social activity of the individual. The selection of a person for a well-defined status role over time, subject to activity, deepens, improves, accentuates the package of professional properties and qualities, bringing it closer to such a characteristic as high professionalism, when the need for self-realization becomes more important than the need to occupy positions of high prestige.

The mechanism of prescription in the formation of social activity lies in the fact that the social environment functionally and socio-culturally prescribes the personality of that standard set moral, labor, entrepreneurial, creative qualities, to which it should be guided or which it is obliged to adhere to. Complying with these requirements to a sufficiently full extent, a person receives a high probability of effective implementation of his goals, which stimulates social activity in the direction of obtaining recognition, wealth, personnel movement, etc. The autonomy of the individual in the spectrum of social activity is manifested in the search (for the individual), the proposal (of the society), the choice (by the individual from the proposed by the society). The freedom of choice in reality (unlike the ideal) always has limits, but a characteristic of the social activity of an individual is the readiness and ability to search for an option for the optimal use of one's abilities, the realization of life goals, plans, and ideals. A person chooses his future, options for fulfilling a role in accordance with his life goals and ambitions. Making a choice, a person creates himself in accordance with the perceived values ​​and circumstances of the social environment.

The motivational sphere of social activity involves the formation and development of motives and conditions that stimulate the social activity of the individual, its inclusion in the achievement of socially significant goals. A high level of social activity does not always directly depend on the cultural level of the individual. Social activity can have economic, domestic and other determinants. However, it social activity members of society determines the level of expanded reproduction of material and spiritual values, which means it increases the opportunities for improving society and the individual.

Thus, the general cultural parameters of the individual are a guide, on the one hand, and a measure, on the other hand, when we are talking about the assessment of the social significance of a particular person, group, team. They make it possible to correlate a person as having reached the level of culture with modern technical, social, and professional conditions of life. In general, culture becomes not just a way of activity, borrowed from experience, but the result of the development of a person, a way of life, a new quality, a new formation of a person. The criterion of personality culture is the optimality and constructiveness of its self-expression and the way in which it is self-realized in the process of life.

Bibliography:

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3. The role of culture in the formation of personality / Ed. E. M. Babosova. - Minsk: Science and technology, 1980. - 192 p.
4. Derkach A. A. Methodology and strategy of acmeological research /A. A. Derkach, G. S. Mikhailov. – M.: MPA, 1998. – 148 p.
5. Klimov E. A. Psychology of a professional. - M .: Institute of Practical Psychology; Voronezh: MODEK, 1996. - 400 p.
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Culture as specifically human way being in the world. Culture as a system.

Culture - (lat) cultivation, upbringing, education, development. This is a specific way of organizing and developing human life, representations in the products of material and spiritual labor in the system of social norms and institutions, in the system of spiritual values, in the aggregate, the relationship of people to nature among themselves and to themselves. In the broad sense of the word, culture is a set of manifestations of life, achievements of the creativity of a people or groups of peoples. In the narrow sense of the word, culture is the ennoblement of the bodily, mental inclinations and abilities of a person. Culture and being in our time are among the most common, and therefore the most familiar concepts. The unflagging interest in culture gradually acquired the features of a real cult, within which truly divine characteristics. It is culture that is regarded as that highly important sphere in which genuine human life and which, being a special, artificial sphere of reality, embraces even history, accommodating all the products of specifically human life activity. On the other hand, culture becomes something so familiar that its fragility ceases to be visible, and all cultural forms are identified without any reservations with nature as a stable, substantial principle. commonplace speech formulas, according to which certain cultural artifacts (for example, certain specific manuscripts, books, projects, devices, engineering structures, etc.) "do not exist in nature", while in fact they simply cannot exist in "nature", convincingly testify precisely to such familiarity of the phenomenon of culture, when they simply cease to notice it in all its originality. At the same time, this situation is interesting precisely because of the identification of nature with being, which means the identification with being of both culture and history (as a segment of culture). However, the reckless use of nature as a synonym for being, although it raises serious objections, is not of great importance for everyday word usage as long as it does not begin to express deep philosophical attitudes. However, in our days this is exactly the case, and this makes the problem of the origins and boundaries of the paradigm of understanding culture as being the focus or, if you like, the generative structure of the methodology of the humanities.

K. as a system Culture as a system of artificial means distinguishes man from animals, which rely on natural means in their life. Culture does not originate empty place. It is preceded by the tool activity of animals with a highly developed psyche, and the elements of training of the younger generation observed in their environment, and high examples of “building art” (nests, burrows, honeycombs, etc.) and the instinctive division of labor. But all this differs fundamentally from culture, since it is developed by people in the process of conscious goal setting. Man himself creates new goals that go beyond the scope of his biological needs, and he himself not only creates, but constantly improves the means of activity.

The basis of the cultural progress of mankind is the constant transformation of the means of activity into its goals, and the ends into means. Spiritual activity, without which the existence of culture is unthinkable, arises as a means to improve practical activities for the extraction of material wealth. But with the development of society, it turns into an independent field of activity, giving rise to such spheres of culture as art, religion, and science.

2. Dialectic of forms of being. The ratio of the eternal and the transient, the single and the diverse, the material and the spiritual, the individual and the social in culture.

Dialectics (Greek - the art of arguing, reasoning) is a logical form and method of reflective theoretical thinking, which has as its subject the contradictions of the conceivable content of this thinking.

It is advisable to single out the following different, but also interconnected basic forms of being:

1) the existence of things (bodies), processes, which in turn is divided into the existence of things, processes, states of nature, the existence of nature as a whole and the existence of things and processes produced by man;

2) human being, which is (conditionally) subdivided into human being in the world of things and specifically human being;

3) spiritual (ideal) being, which is divided into individualized spiritual and objectified (non-individual) spiritual;

4) social being, which is divided into individual being (the being of an individual in society and in the process of history) and the being of society.

The relationship of culture and worldview.

What is a worldview? A set of thoughts that excite society and a person about the essence of the surrounding world, about the position and purpose of humanity and a person in it. What does the society in which I live, and what do I myself, living in the world, mean? What do we want to see in it? What do we expect from him? Depending on what answer to these fundamental questions of being the individuals who make up society come to, one can judge the spirit of the corresponding era. Doesn't this overestimate the importance of worldview? Of course, at present, many do not usually rise in their outlook on life to a conscious worldview. For the most part, they also do not realize the need and do not feel the need to derive their ideas and beliefs from such a worldview and usually, to a greater or lesser extent, are guided by the tone set by their time, listen to the leading voices of their era. But who do these voices belong to? Individuals who participated in shaping the worldview of society and then derived from it more or less valuable ideas that enjoy the authority of our generation. As a result, all thoughts and ideas of both individuals and society are somehow involved in the dominant worldview. Each era - consciously or subconsciously - lives by what was born in the minds of thinkers, whose influence it experiences on itself.

Historical types of worldview

The philosophy and religion of India and Germany is pantheism, that is, a doctrine in which evil is a necessary condition for being and life. Therefore, the only means of destroying evil here is the destruction of life itself, of being itself. So they decide, and to this, in the final conclusion, both Eastern Buddhism and Western pantheism should come. On the contrary, the Zend and Slavic worldviews and life views do not make evil an inevitable condition of being and life, and they make the fight against it the goal of historical existence. That is why the starting point here is not pantheism, but the final point is neither Buddhism nor pessimism. Between the worldviews of the Semitic and the Indo-Germanic, the Zendo-Slavic serves as a conciliatory link.

Evil lies in blindness and unconsciousness, and good lies in the transformation of the unconscious into the rational, birth into resurrection.

Only in the absence of consciousness does division destroy unity and turn (reasonable and moral) individuals (personalities) into only "natural" beings, that is, only into modifications, into modes of physical nature; and only with blindness does unity absorb (individual) differences, destroy individual personalities. The general resurrection is the restoration of both difference and unity, the destruction of both the yoke and arbitrary, disorderly confusion, which does not want to know either definitions or distinctions. Gathering or the condition of the general resurrection is the promotion, and not the opposition to the unification in a common and single goal.

The essence of the cogito principle and the doctrine of innate ideas by R. Descartes.

Innate Ideas

According to Plato, the true knowledge of the ideal prototypes of things in our world, stored in the deep memory of a person and not derived from any experimental research; the role of the latter in cognition is reduced only to initiating the process of "remembering" (anamnesis) these ideas. R. Descartes (XVII century) considered innate ideas to be completely clear and self-evident, withstanding any doubt and not needing any experimental justification: such are logical and mathematical ideas, as well as the idea of ​​God. On their basis, Descartes built the building of true knowledge. Critics of Descartes declared that the consciousness of a person from birth is a "blank slate" on which only experience writes its letters, which, however, is not at all indisputable. For modern philosophy, this dispute has lost its meaning, now it is about accepting certain ideas and premises that do not require substantiation, but are necessary for understanding experience in various studies of reality. But for religious philosophy, the conviction of Bonaventure and others that the soul has an innate knowledge of God and the higher wisdom given by him has not lost its significance. Contemporary Christian thinkers often speak not so much of innate ideas as of the innate aspirations of a person for the good, perfection, fullness of life, and, ultimately, for God.

Kant's transcendentalism.

(from Latin transcendere - to cross) - a concept that puts the transcendental or transcendental at the forefront. Initially, the term was used in relation to the "transcendental philosophy" of I. Kant and F.V.I. Schelling, then to designate post-Kantian idealism and any idealistic philosophy that assumes the indispensable presence of the ideal or spiritual in sensory experience. In a broad and pejorative sense, T. is any position that is "enthusiastic", "mystical", extravagant, impractical, breaking with common sense, etc.

The transcendental meaning belongs to all the a priori conditions of experience (i.e., to those functions of outlook and reason that do not follow from experience, but determine it ...), as well as to ideas in their true sense, as principles and postulates of reason; the science that studies these a priori foundations of everything that exists is transcendental philosophy, or (true) metaphysics - this is precisely how Kant designated his own philosophy ... "
So, Kantian philosophy, by definition of the author himself, is the philosophy transcendental. From this it is clear how great importance attached I. Kant to this tricky and sonorous term. Indeed, in the system of the Keningsberg thinker, the term "transcendental" performs diverse functions. First of all, transcendental philosophy is called upon to be opposed to philosophy transcendent.

Varieties

Distinguish analytical And continental philosophy.

Some are opposed to such a division of modern philosophy along geographical lines.

Analytical philosophy(Anglo-Saxon philosophy, Anglo-American philosophy) - a direction in the philosophical thought of the 20th century, developing mainly in English-speaking countries and uniting a large number of various concepts and schools.

The following points are common to analytic philosophy:

· linguistic turn - philosophical problems are defined as lying in the area of ​​the language, therefore their solution is connected with the analysis of linguistic expressions;

· semantic accent- focusing on issues of meaning;

· analytical method- preference for analysis to all other types of philosophical reflection.

The founders of analytic philosophy are Gottlob Frege, George Moore, Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein. In addition, similar problems were developed in the neopositivism of the Vienna Circle and in the German language criticism.

Continental philosophy is a term used to refer to one of the two main traditions of modern Western philosophy. This name was used to distinguish this tradition from Anglo-American or analytic philosophy because, at the time the distinction was first noted (mid-twentieth century), continental philosophy was the dominant style of philosophy in continental Europe, while analytic philosophy was the predominant style in the English-speaking world.

It is generally accepted that continental philosophy includes phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, structuralism, poststructuralism and postmodernism, deconstruction, French feminism, critical theory in the sense of the Frankfurt School, psychoanalysis, the work of Friedrich Nietzsche and Søren Kierkegaard, most branches of Marxism and Marxist philosophy (although it should be noted that there is an analytic Marxism which ascribes itself to the analytic tradition).

37. The main problems considered in modern philosophy. Philosophical schools arising from the study of these problems.

The main question of philosophy as a special science is the problem of the relation of thought to being , consciousness to matter. F Philosophy increasingly and more actively draws into the orbit of its consideration problems of society, man, science. This is one of the signs of the renewal of religious thought. Throughout its history, including modern times, the most important, if not the first subject of theology and religious philosophy remains the problem of the existence of god.Human problem occupies a prominent place in classical religious philosophy. Human problem closely related to ethical issues. In religious ethics there is also a struggle between traditionalism and new approaches. The problem of good and evil has always stood at the center of religious philosophy.

SCHOOLS: Thomism is the name of a system that follows the teachings of St. Thomas Aquinas in philosophical and theological questions. In a narrower sense, the term refers to the views held by the Thomist school. Returning to neo-Thomism, we can say that this is Thomism on present stage, which originates in the last quarter XIX century. It was by this time that due to objective reasons there was a revival of scholasticism.

Existential thinking unfolds exclusively in the sphere of being, and all other traditional philosophical problems acquire secondary importance as particular consequences of the solution of the main problem. This existence (existence) is interpreted as something correlated with transcendence, that is, a person's going beyond his own limits.

Metaphysics, like dialectics, has never been something given once and for all. It changed, appeared in various historical forms (types) and diverse “faces” (types). Therefore, if in any philosophical system“metaphysical problems” are considered, then it is necessary to clearly understand what sense of the concept of “metaphysics” is in question. If we mean anti-dialectics (a metaphysical way of thinking), it is necessary to differentiate its forms and types. The cognition of the thinking type differs essentially from the cognition of the intuitive type. The thinking type is usually interested in knowledge as such, seeks and establishes a logical connection between phenomena, while the intuitive type is focused on pragmatics, on the practically useful use of knowledge, regardless of their truth and logical consistency. What is useful is true - this is his life credo.

Methodology is the doctrine of the organization of activities. Such a definition unambiguously determines the subject of the methodology - the organization of activities.

In this case, the methodology can be considered very broadly - as a doctrine of the organization of any human activity: scientific, and any practical professional activity, and artistic, and gaming, etc. - On the one side. On the other hand, both individual and collective activity.

If we proceed from the classification of activities according to the target orientation: game-learning-work, then we can talk about:

Methodologies of game activity;

Methodologies of educational activity;

Methodology of labor, professional activity.

ethical

1) The main human values, which, to a greater or lesser extent, are included in all other ethical values(the value of life, consciousness, activity, suffering, strength, free will, foresight, purposefulness);

2) Virtues (justice, wisdom, courage, self-control, love of neighbor, truthfulness, sincerity, fidelity, devotion, kindness, compassion, trust, faith, modesty, humility, decency, attentiveness, tolerance, restraint, generosity, respect, courtesy, friendly disposition);

3) More private ethical values ​​(love for the most distant, the ability to give others one's spiritual property, the value of a person, love aimed at the ideal value of someone else's personality).

aesthetic

Aesthetic values ​​(like any others) are a synthesis of three basic values: material-objective, psychological, social. Real-objective value includes a characteristic external properties things and objects acting as an object of value relations. The second meaning characterizes the psychological qualities of a person as a subject of value relations. social significance indicates the relationship between people, thanks to which values ​​acquire a universally valid character. The peculiarity of aesthetic values ​​lies in the relation of a person to reality, characteristic of aesthetics. It implies a sensual-spiritual, disinterested perception of reality, which is aimed at comprehending and evaluating the inner essence of real objects.

Since ancient times, beauty has been considered the main aesthetic category. And the meta-category aesthetic itself was associated precisely with the beautiful. This can be deduced from the traditional harmonious relationship between man and the world. Initially in ancient culture man is a contemplative being. It is known that the Greeks had a unique ability to feel and see the beauty in the nature around them and in space in general.

cognitive values

Intra-scientific values ​​are called cognitive. Models of cognitive values ​​are manifested in the belief system of the scientist. For him, the explanatory, demonstrative and predictive potential of science is a value, as well as the primacy of facts and the possibility of a consistent conclusion. Sometimes cognitive value refers to reliance on tradition or authority. Cognitive values ​​are the basis for the consolidation of scientists in the scientific community. However, in the latter, disputes sometimes arise about their hierarchy, their various systems, and the diversity of their carriers. The system of values ​​is of great importance for determining the criteria of science.

The principle of objectivity has always been considered the most important cognitive value. It was conceived, first, as a procedure that fixes the coincidence of knowledge with its object; secondly, as a procedure for eliminating from knowledge everything that is connected with the subject and the means of his cognitive activity.

60. Place and role of moral and aesthetic categories in the structure of philosophical knowledge. Reasons for their occurrence and conditions for implementation.

Ethics is a field of philosophical knowledge. Its content is set by the subject of research itself and includes two main components. One of them is connected with the study and theoretical justification of the origin and historical development of morality, with the understanding of various forms and directions of ethical teachings. The other one covers the whole range of problems that make up the content of ethics or general theory morals. This is a systematized philosophical understanding of the essence of morality, the laws of its functioning and development, its role in the life of a person and society. With all the qualitative originality of its historical types, the multiplicity of ethical teachings, the development of morality is integral and successive in a single historical process.

Aesthetic - metacategory of aesthetics. Metacategory is the broadest specifically fundamental category of any science, which determines its essence. It reflects what is common to aesthetic characteristics in life and art, as well as to all aesthetic categories. Categories - concepts that reflect the most significant aspects and relationships of a particular field of phenomena.

In aesthetics, almost any concept - ideal images, devoid of visibility and reflecting the general essential properties and connections of the phenomena of objective reality, in one way or another affect the aesthetic. Therefore, it is necessary to dwell on the problem of the nature of the aesthetic.

61. Specificity of social cognition; subject and methods of social
philosophical analysis.

A specific combination of all these factors and aspects of the specifics of social cognition determines the diversity of points of view and theories that explain the development and functioning of social life. At the same time, this specificity largely determines the nature and characteristics of various aspects of social cognition: ontological, epistemological, and value (axiological).
1.ontological(from the Greek on (ontos) - being) the side of social cognition concerns the explanation of the existence of society, the laws and trends of its functioning and development. At the same time, it also affects such a subject of social life as a person, to the extent that he is included in the system of social relations. In this aspect, the above complexity social life, as well as its dynamism, combined with the personal element of social cognition, are the objective basis for the diversity of points of view on the issue of the essence of people's social existence.

These basic objective social factors underlying any society include, first of all, the level and nature of economic development society, material interests and needs of people. Not only an individual, but the whole of humanity, before engaging in knowledge, satisfying their spiritual needs, must satisfy their primary, material needs. Certain social, political and ideological structures also arise only on a certain economic basis. For example, the modern political structure of society could not have arisen in a primitive economy. Although, of course, one cannot deny the mutual influence of various factors on community development, starting from the geographical environment and ending with subjective ideas about the world.
2.epistemological(from the Greek gnosis - knowledge) the side of social cognition is connected with the features of this cognition itself, primarily with the question of whether it is able to formulate its own laws and categories and whether it has them at all. In other words, we are talking about whether social cognition can claim the truth and have the status of science? The answer to this question largely depends on the position of the scientist on the ontological problem of social cognition, that is, on whether the objective existence of society and the presence of objective laws in it are recognized. As in cognition in general, in social cognition, ontology largely determines epistemology.
The epistemological side of social cognition also includes the solution of such problems:
- how is the knowledge of social phenomena carried out;
- what are the possibilities of their knowledge and what are the boundaries of knowledge;

The role of social practice in social cognition and the significance in this personal experience knowing subject;

The role of various kinds of sociological research and social experiments in social cognition.

Of no small importance is the question of the possibilities of the human mind in the knowledge of the spiritual world of man and society, the culture of certain peoples. In this regard, there are problems of the possibilities of logical and intuitive knowledge of the phenomena of social life, including psychological states large groups people as manifestations of their mass consciousness. The problems of the so-called "common sense" and mythological thinking are not without meaning in relation to the analysis of the phenomena of social life and their understanding.

3. In addition to the ontological and epistemological aspects of social cognition, there is also value - axiological its side (from the Greek axios - valuable), which plays an important role in understanding its specificity, since any knowledge, and especially social, is associated with certain value patterns, preferences and interests of various cognizing subjects. The value approach manifests itself from the very beginning of knowledge - from the choice of the object of study. This choice is made by a specific subject with his life and cognitive experience, individual goals and objectives. In addition, value prerequisites and priorities largely determine not only the choice of the object of cognition, but also its forms and methods, as well as the specifics of interpreting the results of social cognition.

The way the researcher sees the object, what he comprehends in it and how he evaluates it, follows from the value prerequisites of cognition. The difference in value positions determines the difference in the results and conclusions of knowledge.

Thus, the value side of social cognition does not at all deny the possibility scientific knowledge society and the presence of social sciences. Moreover, it contributes to the consideration of society, individual social phenomena in different aspects and from different positions. Thus, a more concrete, multilateral and Full description social phenomena and, consequently, more scientific explanation social life. The main thing is to reveal the inner essence and pattern of development of social phenomena and processes on the basis of different points of view and approaches, positions and opinions, which is main task social sciences.
The ontological, epistemological and axiological aspects of social cognition are closely interconnected, forming an integral structure of people's cognitive activity.

Knowledge classification

By nature

declarative

procedural

Declarative knowledge contains only an idea of ​​the structure of certain concepts. This knowledge is close to data, facts.

Procedural knowledge is active in nature. They define ideas about the means and ways of obtaining new knowledge, testing knowledge.

By degree of science

Scientific knowledge can be

Empirical (based on experience or observation)

· theoretical (based on the analysis of abstract models).

Extrascientific knowledge can be:

parascientific - knowledge incompatible with the existing epistemological standard;

· pseudoscientific - consciously exploiting conjectures and prejudices;

· quasi-scientific - they are looking for supporters and adherents, relying on methods of violence and coercion;

· anti-scientific - as utopian and deliberately distorting ideas about reality;

pseudoscientific - represent intellectual activity, speculating on a set of popular theories, for example, stories about ancient astronauts, about Bigfoot, about a monster from Loch Ness;

· ordinary-practical - delivering elementary information about nature and the surrounding reality;

personal - depending on the abilities of a particular subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual cognitive activity.

By location

Allocate: personal (implicit, hidden, not yet formalized) knowledge and formalized (explicit) knowledge;

Implicit knowledge:

· knowledge of people that is not yet formalized and cannot be transferred to other people.

Formalized in some language (explicit) knowledge:

Knowledge in documents

Knowledge on CD

Knowledge of personal computers

Internet knowledge

knowledge in knowledge bases,

knowledge in expert systems extracted from implicit knowledge of human experts.

Direct (intuitive) knowledge is a product of intuition - the ability to comprehend the truth by direct observation of it without substantiation with the help of evidence.

Everyday knowledge, as a rule, is reduced to a statement of facts and their description, while scientific knowledge rises to the level of explaining facts, comprehending them in the system of concepts of a given science, and being included in the theory.

Scientific knowledge is characterized by logical validity, evidence, reproducibility of cognitive results.

Empirical knowledge is obtained as a result of the application of empirical methods of knowledge - observation, measurement, experiment. This is knowledge about the visible relationships between individual events and facts in the subject area.

Theoretical ideas arise on the basis of generalization of empirical data. At the same time, they influence the enrichment and change of empirical knowledge.

Theoretical level scientific knowledge involves the establishment of laws that enable idealized perception, description and explanation of empirical situations, that is, knowledge of the essence of phenomena. Theoretical laws are more rigorous and formal in comparison with empirical ones.

Formalized knowledge is objectified by the symbolic means of the language. cover the knowledge that we know about, we can write it down, communicate it to others.

Principles of scientific knowledge.

1. Causality.

IN modern understanding causality means the connection between the individual states of the species and forms of matter in the process of its movement and development. The emergence of any objects and systems, as well as the change in their properties over time, have their grounds in the previous states of matter; these grounds are called causes, and the changes they cause are called effects.

2. The criterion of truth.

Natural scientific truth is verified (proved) only by practice: observations, experiments, experiments, production activities. If a scientific theory is confirmed by practice, then it is true.

3. Relativity of scientific knowledge.

Scientific knowledge (concepts, ideas, concepts, models, theories, conclusions from them, etc.) is always relative and limited.

experience- this is the everyday everyday experience of people, this is the world of feelings, experiences and activity of a person, the sphere of his ordinary life.

STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Three levels: empirical, theoretical, philosophical grounds.
On empirical At the level of scientific knowledge, as a result of direct contact with reality, scientists receive knowledge about certain events, identify the properties of objects or processes of interest to them, fix relationships, and establish empirical patterns.

Theoretical the level of scientific knowledge is divided into two parts: fundamental theories, in which the scientist deals with the most abstract ideal objects, and theories that describe a specific area of ​​reality on the basis of fundamental theories.

Level philosophical premises, philosophical foundations. Certain ideas of a philosophical nature are woven into the fabric of scientific knowledge, embodied in theories.
A theory turns from an apparatus for describing and predicting empirical data into knowledge when all its concepts receive an ontological and epistemological interpretation.

84. Determinants and character traits the image of science in the conditions of anthropogenic civilization.

The transition from industrial civilization to post-industrial (anthropogenic) - as a result of the scientific and technological revolution.

In the economic sphere:

* the predominance of the so-called tertiary sphere in the economy - the spheres of science, education, services

* social orientation of the economy: production of consumer goods, development of the service sector

* the main area of ​​economic activity is the service sector

* individualization of production and consumption

* increase in the share of small-scale production with the loss of dominant positions by mass production

* elimination of heavy and monotonous physical labor

* the leading role of science, knowledge and information

* development information technology and technologies, implementation information technologies in all areas

* the use of resource-saving technologies (replacement of natural raw materials with synthetic raw materials), the development of high and unmanned technologies, automation and computerization of production processes

* turning information into the main strategic resource world economy, integration of national, regional and world economies based on information technology and telecommunications

In the social sphere:

* erasing class distinctions

* the elimination of social polarization and the growth of the proportion of the "middle class"

* the emergence of a new intellectual class professionals and technicians (a decisive role in the functioning and development of society)

* change in the structure of professional employment of the population, the predominance of the share of categories of the population associated with the production, distribution, storage, transfer of information

* consolidation of the level of education and knowledge of the role of the main factor that determines the social status of the individual, social stratum and social structure generally

* trend towards deurbanization (outflow of population from big cities to suburbs)

In the political sphere:

* development of legal regulation of public relations

* replacement of representative democracy by direct democracy (decision-making by voters via electronic communication)

* the possibilities of local municipal self-government are expanding → decentralization of social and political life

In the spiritual realm:

* in the center - a person, his individuality → anthropogenic civilization

* Increasing reliance on the daily life of society from the media, video products, advertising, etc.

* science is a productive sphere

* high level of education of the population, awareness of the problem of functional illiteracy

the main objective- increasing the creative potential of the individual and its information environment.

Components this environments Keywords: mediatization, computerization, intellectualization.

· mediatization: the process of improving the means of collecting, storing and disseminating information;

· computerization: the process of improving the means of searching and processing information;

· intellectualization: the process of developing the ability to perceive and generate new information, including the use of artificial intelligence tools.

Problems

1. ensuring free access to national information resources as the most important condition for observing the constitutional right to information;

2.development of information (computer) human psychology;

3.development of social informatization of society (language communication, information security of the individual, protection from computer crime);

4.information ecology of society in the social and natural environment;

5.development of measures to overcome intellectual emigration;

6. adaptation of people with disabilities to the modern information environment;

7.changing the role of labor in the life of society, the development of new incentives for labor activity;

8.prevention of the formation of a consumer society, leading to its degradation.