History message. Report historical event, etc.

The original meaning, etymology and meaning of the term

The original meaning of the word "history" goes back to the ancient Greek term meaning "investigation, recognition, establishment." History was identified with the establishment of authenticity, the truth of events and facts. In ancient Roman historiography (historiography in the modern sense is a branch of historical science that studies its history), this word began to mean not a way of recognizing, but a story about the events of the past. Soon, “history” began to be called in general any story about any case, incident, real or fictional.

Stories that are popular in a particular culture but not corroborated by third-party sources, such as the Arthurian legends, are generally considered part of the cultural heritage, rather than the "unbiased study" that any part of history as a scientific discipline should be.

Word story came from Greek ἱστορία , history), and comes from the Proto-Indo-European word wid-tor-, where is the root weid-, "know, see" . In Russian it is represented by the words "see" and "know".

In the same ancient Greek sense, the word "history" was used by Francis Bacon in the widely used term natural history. For Bacon, history is "knowledge of objects whose place is determined in space and time," and whose source is memory (just as science is a product of reflection, and poetry is a product of fantasy). In medieval England, the word "story" was more often used in the sense of a story in general ( story). Special term history ( history) as a sequence of past events appeared in English at the end of the 15th century, and the word "historical" ( historical, historic) - in the XVII century. In Germany, France and Russia, the same word "history" is still used in both senses.

Since historians are both observers and participants in events, their historical writings are written from the point of view of their time and are usually not only politically biased, but also share all the delusions of their era. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history - modern history". Historical science provides a true account of the course of history through stories about events and their impartial analysis. In our time, history is created by the efforts of scientific institutions.

All events that remain in the memory of generations, in one authentic form or another, constitute the content historical chronicle. This is necessary to identify the sources that are most important for recreating the past. The composition of each historical archive depends on the content of a more general archive in which certain texts and documents are found; although each of them claims "the whole truth", some of these statements are usually refuted. In addition to archival sources, historians can use inscriptions and images on monuments, oral traditions and other sources, such as archaeological ones. By providing sources independent of historical sources, archeology is especially useful for historical research, not only confirming or refuting the testimony of eyewitnesses of events, but also allowing time gaps to be filled in with information about which there is no evidence of contemporaries.

History belongs to the humanities by some authors, to the social sciences by others, and may be considered as an area between the humanities and the social sciences. The study of history is often associated with certain practical or theoretical goals, but it can also be a manifestation of ordinary human curiosity.

Historiography

Term historiography has several meanings. First, it is the science of how history is written, how correctly the historical method is applied, and how it develops. Secondly, the same term refers to the set historical works, often thematically or otherwise selected from total population(for example, the historiography of the 1960s about the Middle Ages). Thirdly, the term historiography indicate the reasons for the creation of historical works, revealed in the course of their analysis, by the choice of subjects, the way events are interpreted, the personal convictions of the author and the audience to which he addresses, by the use of evidence or the method of referring to other historians. Professional historians also discuss the possibility of creating a single story about the history of mankind, or a series of such stories, competing for an audience.

Philosophy of history

The main approaches to the development of the philosophy of history include the following:

• formational (K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin, I. M. Dyakonov, etc.)
• civilizational (N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, Sh. Aizenstadt, B. S. Erasov, D. M. Bondarenko, I. V. Sledzevsky, S. A. Nefyodov, G. V. Aleksushin and etc.)
• world-system (A. G. Frank , I. Wallerstein , S. Amin , J. Arrighi , M. A. Cheshkov , A. I. Fursov , A. V. Korotaev , K. Chase-Dunn, L. E. Grinin, etc.)
• Annales School: M. Blok, L. Febvre, F. Braudel, A. Ya. Gurevich.
• Relay-stadial (Yu. I. Semyonov) (in fact, nothing more than a modified Marxist-formational approach, where the main driving force social development is the same class struggle, and the ultimate goal is communism.)

History Methods

The historical method consists in following the principles and rules of working with primary sources and other evidence found during the study and then used in writing a historical work.

However, the beginning of the use of scientific methods in history is associated with another of his contemporary, Thucydides, and his book "History of the Peloponnesian War". Unlike Herodotus and his religious colleagues, Thucydides viewed history as a product of the choice and actions of not gods, but people in whom he looked for all causes and effects.

Own traditions and developed methods historical research existed in ancient and medieval China. The foundations of professional historiography were laid there by Sima Qian (145-90 BC), the author of the Historical Notes. His followers used this work as a model for historical and biographical writings.

Among other historians who influenced the formation of the methodology of historical research, we can mention Ranke, Trevelyan, Braudel, Blok, Febvre, Vogel. The use of scientific methodology in history was opposed by such authors as H. Trevor-Roper. They stated that understanding history requires imagination, so history should not be considered a science, but an art. An equally controversial author, Ernst Nolte, following the classical German philosophical tradition, viewed history as a movement of ideas. Marxist historiography, represented in the West, in particular by the work of Hobsbawm and Deutscher, aims to confirm philosophical ideas Karl Marx. Their opponents from anti-communist historiography, such as Pipes and Conquest, offer an opposite Marxist interpretation of history. There is also an extensive historiography from a feminist perspective. A number of postmodern philosophers generally deny the possibility of an unbiased interpretation of history and the existence of scientific methodology in it. IN Lately Cliodynamics, the mathematical modeling of historical processes, is gaining more and more strength.

Comprehension of the patterns of historical processes

The question of the spread of various public systems largely boiled down to the problem of the spread of technical innovations, cultural diffusion. The ideas of diffusionism were most clearly formulated in the so-called theory of cultural circles. Its authors Friedrich Ratzel, Leo Frobenius and Fritz Gröbner believed that similar phenomena in culture various peoples are explained by the origin of these phenomena from one center, that the most important elements of human culture appear only once and only in one place. They give the discoverer people a decisive advantage over other peoples.

In the 50s and 60s of the 20th century, the Malthusian theory of cycles found a detailed reflection in the generalizing works of Slicher van Bath, Carlo Chippol and a number of other authors. Big role the French Annales school played in the development of this theory, in particular the works of Jean Mevre, Pierre Goubert, Ernest Labrousse, Fernand Braudel, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie. In 1958, summing up the achievements of the previous period, the editor of the Annales, Fernand Braudel, announced the birth of a "new historical science", La Nouvelle Histoire. He wrote: "The New Economic and social history to the fore in his research puts forward the problem of cyclic change. She is fascinated by the phantom but also by the reality of the cyclical rise and fall of prices.” Soon the existence of a "new historical science" was recognized throughout the Western world. In England, it became known as the new scientific history, and in the USA - the new one. economic history, or cliometry. The historical process was described by cliometrists with the help of huge numerical arrays, databases stored in the memory of computers.

In 1974, the first volume of The Modern World System by Immanuel Wallerstein came out. Developing the ideas of Fernand Braudel, Wallerstein showed that the formation of the world market is associated with uneven economic development. The countries of the “world center”, where new technologies appear and where the diffusion (and sometimes aggressive) wave of innovations comes from, thanks to this they exploit the countries of the “world periphery”.

In 1991, the demographic-structural theory of Jack Goldstone appeared. She drew on neo-Malthusian theory, but offered a more detailed approach, in particular, she considered the impact of the overpopulation crisis not only on the common people, but also on the elite and on the state.

In The Pursuit of Power, William McNeil, describing the diffusion waves generated by the technical discoveries of the Modern Age, supplements his model with a description of the Malthusian demographic cycles. Thus, we can talk about a new concept of development human society, in which the internal development of society is described using neo-Malthusian theory, but demographic cycles are sometimes superimposed by waves of conquests generated by discoveries made in other societies. These conquests are followed by demographic catastrophes and social synthesis, during which a new society and a new state are born.

Historical periods

The division of history into certain periods is used for classification in terms of certain common ideas. The names and boundaries of individual periods may depend on the geographic region and the dating system. In most cases, the names are given retrospectively, that is, they reflect the system of assessments of the past from the point of view of subsequent eras, which may affect the researcher, and therefore periodization should be treated with due caution.

Story ( historical period ) in the classical sense begins with the advent of writing. The period before its appearance is called prehistoric period. In Russian historiography, the following major periods of world history are distinguished:

• Primitive society: in the Middle East - until c. 3000 BC e. (unification of Upper and Lower Egypt);
• Ancient world: in Europe - until 476 AD. e. (fall of the Roman Empire);
• Middle Ages: 476 - the end of the 15th century (the beginning of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries);
• New time: the end of the XV century. - 1918 (end of World War I);
• Modern times: 1918 - our days.

There are also alternative periodizations world history. For example, in Western historiography, the ending middle ages associated with the 16th century, after which a single period begins modern history.

Historical disciplines

• Archeography is the theory and practice of publishing written sources.
• Archeology - the study of the material sources of the historical past of mankind.
• Archiving - the study of the acquisition of archives, as well as the storage and use of archival documents.
• Archontology is the study of the history of positions in state, international, political, religious and other public structures.
• Bonistics - the study of the history of printing and circulation of paper money.
• Vexillology (flag science) - the study of flags, banners, standards, pennants and other items of this kind.
• Genealogy is the study of family relationships among people.
• Genetic genealogy - the study of human relationships through the use of genetics.
• Heraldry (coat of arms) - the study of coats of arms, as well as the tradition and practice of their use.
• Diplomatics is the study of historical acts (legal documents).
• Document science is a complex science of the document and document-communication activity, which studies the processes of creation, distribution and use of documentary sources of information in society in historical, modern and prognostic terms.
• Historiography is the study of the history and methodology of historical knowledge, as well as the study of the views and works of various historians.
• Historical geography is a science at the intersection of history and geography.
• Historical demography is the science of the demographic history of mankind.
• Historical metrology - the study of measures used in the past - length, area, volume, weight - in their historical development.
• - studying .
• Methodology of history - study various systems methods that can be used in the process of historical research and the specifics of various historical scientific schools.
• Numismatics - the study of the history of coinage and money circulation in coins.
• Palaeography is the study of the history of writing, the patterns of development of its graphic forms, as well as monuments of ancient writing.
• Papyrology is the study of texts on papyri found primarily in Egypt.
• Sphragistics is the study of seals (matrices) and their impressions on various materials.
• Faleristics - the study of award insignia.
• Chronology - the study of the sequence of historical events in time, or the science of measuring time.
• Eortology - the study of church holidays.
• Epigraphy - the study of inscriptions on solid materials (stone, ceramics, metal, etc.)

Disciplines related to history

• Anthropology is the study of man and his interaction with the world.
• Gender history - the history of the interaction of male and female experience as one of the most important aspects social organization.
• Sociocultural anthropology is the science of culture as a set of material objects, ideas, values, ideas and patterns of behavior in all forms of its manifestation and at all historical stages of its development.
• Culturology is a science that studies culture, the most general patterns of its development.
• Local history - the study of architecture, biology, geography, history, culture, literature, medicine, religious cults, self-government, Agriculture, sports, toponymy, fortification, ecology of a particular region.
• Psychohistory is the study of the psychological motivation of people's actions in the past.
• Ethnology and ethnography - the study of peoples and ethnic groups, their origins, culture and behavior (the definition of the subject matter of both disciplines, as well as their connection with sociocultural anthropology, remain debatable).

Related disciplines

• Military history - the science of origins, construction and action armed forces, component military science.
• Historical psychology is a science at the intersection of history and psychology.
• The history of culture is the science of the value world historical eras, peoples, individuals and other carriers of the historical process.
• History of science - the history of scientific knowledge, political and legal doctrines, the history of philosophy, etc.
• The history of state and law - studies the patterns of development of the state and law among various peoples of the world in different historical periods.
• The history of political and legal doctrines - studies the peculiarities of views on the issues of the essence, origin and existence of the state and law of various thinkers in various historical periods.
• The history of religion is the study of the emergence and development of religious beliefs and sacred cults, the relationships and characteristics of local and world confessions.
• History of economics - the study of phenomena and processes associated with evolutionary development and interaction economic activity person.

Notes

1. Professor Richard J. Evans The Two Faces of E.H. Carr (English) . archived
2. Professor Alun Munslow What History Is. History in Focus, Issue 2: What is History?. University of London (2001). Archived from the original on August 21, 2011. Retrieved November 10, 2008.
3. Introduction // Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives / Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas, Sam Wineburg (eds.). - New York & London: New York University Press, 2000. - P. 6. - ISBN 0-8147-8141-1
4. Nash Gary B. The "Convergence" Paradigm in Studying Early American History in Schools // Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives / Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas, Sam Wineburg (eds.). - New York & London: New York University Press, 2000. - P. 102–115. - ISBN 0-8147-8141-1
5. Seixas Peter Schweigen! die Kinder! // Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives / Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas, Sam Wineburg (eds.). - New York & London: New York University Press, 2000. - P. 24. - ISBN 0-8147-8141-1
6. Lowenthal David Dilemmas and Delights of Learning History // Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives / Peter N. Stearns, Peters Seixas, Sam Wineburg (eds.). - New York & London: New York University Press, 2000. - P. 63. - ISBN 0-8147-8141-1
7. Joseph, Brian (Ed.) & Janda, Richard (Ed.) (2008), "The Handbook of Historical Linguistics", Blackwell Publishing (published 30 December 2004), p. 163, ISBN 978-1405127479
8. Muller M. On the strength of roots // Science of language. Philological Notes, Voronezh, 1866.
9. Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=history&searchmode=none
10. Ferrater-Mora, José. Diccionario de Filosofia. Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1994.
11. Whitney, W.D. . New York: The Century Co., 1889.
12. Whitney, W. D. (1889). The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English language. New York: The Century Co. Page .
13. WordNet Search - 3.0, "History".
14. Michael C. Lemon (1995). The Discipline of History and the History of Thought. Routledge. Page 201. ISBN 0-415-12346-1
15. Scott Gordon and James Gordon Irving, The History and Philosophy of Social Science. Routledge 1991. Page 1. ISBN 0-415-05682-9
16. Ritter, H. (1986). Dictionary of concepts in history. Reference sources for the social sciences and humanities, no. 3. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. Page 416.
17. Graham, Gordon Chapter 1 // The Shape of the Past. - Oxford University, 1997.
18. Elizabeth Harris, In Defense of the Liberal-Arts Approach to Technical Writing. College English, Vol. 44, no. 6 (Oct., 1982), pp. 628-636

Report

On the topic: "Historical science,history of modernity historical events»

Introduction

It has long been known that stones also speak if they are stones of history.

Evidence of conclusions is an obligatory feature of scientific knowledge. History as

science operates with precisely established facts. As in other sciences,

history is the accumulation and discovery of new facts. These facts are extracted from historical sources. Historical sources are all remnants past life, all evidence of the past. There are currently four main groups historical sources:

1. Real;

2. Written;

3. Fine;

4. Phonic.

The past does not disappear, but continues to live in the accumulated experience of social life.

Generalization and processing of accumulated human experience is the first task of history.

"History is the teacher of life," said the ancients. And indeed, people

always, especially turning points life of mankind, in a gigantic

laboratories of world social experience are trying to find the answer to the burning questions of our time. On historical examples people are brought up on respect for eternal, enduring human values: peace, goodness, justice, freedom, equality, beauty.

An outstanding Russian historian, professor of Moscow University V.O. Klyuchevsky wittily noted in one of his diary entries that, although they say that history has taught no one and nothing, life, however, takes even more revenge on those who do not know at all stories. The famous scientist wrote: “It is not the flowers that are to blame for the blind man not seeing them. History teaches even those who do not learn from it: it teaches them a lesson for ignorance and neglect. I would like to recall one more aphorism: "False interpretation of the past leads to failures in the present and prepares a catastrophe in the future."

History is one of the most important forms of people's self-consciousness. Opposing political forces seek to use the experience of history. They justify their actions with references to history. Therefore, in the interpretation of certain historical events, there is an ongoing struggle of different ideas and opinions.

The interest of people in the results of studying their past gives

certain grounds for a skeptical attitude towards history as a science that objectively evaluates the events and laws of historical development. You can often hear the words that history is used to substantiate the goals of political struggle, that every generation, every party rewrite history anew, that this is "politics overturned into the past." The point of view is expressed that the past can be objectively known only by isolating from the present. Skeptics also argue that in the age of the scientific and technological revolution, history will only become a science when it adopts the methods and mathematical precision of the natural sciences. Finally, as an argument about

failure of history as a science, the idea of ​​the impossibility of

reconstructions of what has irretrievably disappeared from the past due to the representativeness (non-preliminary) of the surviving sources about real events.

And yet, despite the pluralism as in the interpretation of individual facts, there is an objective truth. Do not blame, but study the past, explain it

The task of scientific knowledge. The search for truth in history, historical knowledge -

complex, time-consuming and interesting process that requires both understanding

features of this knowledge, as well as a certain professional

skill.

The historian cannot write without anger and passion, but he has no right to

deception, distortion and concealment of the truth. The search and affirmation of truth has always been the main goal of science. Being a social memory

humanity, the treasury of its social experience, history passes it on from one generation to another. And the comprehension of this experience makes it the property of modernity. Contrary to the opinions of skeptics, the role of historical science in people's lives is increasing. Historians do not study the past in order to get away from the present. History serves the present, explaining the present and providing material for predicting the future.

Historical science tries to give a holistic vision of the historical process in the unity of all its characteristics. In this it is no different from other sciences. As in other sciences, in history there is an accumulation and discovery of new facts, the theory is being improved taking into account the development of other branches of knowledge, methods of processing and analyzing sources. Many facts, events, phenomena of our history with the discovery of new sources, with the expansion of our horizons, the improvement of theoretical knowledge today are assessed differently than five to ten years ago. All this is evidence that history is being rewritten not only out of political conjuncture, but also in response to the expansion of the palette of our knowledge about the past.

Cannot be created new world, bypassing the past - people have known this at all times.

A comprehensive scientific study of the material and spiritual culture of the past makes us richer and smarter, more generous and insightful in thoughts and deeds, in plans and accomplishments. All this testifies in favor of the fact that knowledge of history makes it possible to more clearly understand modernity, but modernity, in turn, sets the task of the most accurate scientific understanding of the past, which has not only moral, but also practical value.

The great Russian scientist and encyclopedist M. V. Lomonosov wrote that history “gives sovereigns examples of government, subjects - obedience, soldiers - courage, judges - justice, young people - old minds, the elderly - extreme firmness in advice, everyone - mild amusement with indescribable usefully united."

Speaking about the role of history in people's lives, "the chick of Petrov's nest" V. N. Tatishchev wrote: , wise and useful cannot be "

THERE IS NO FUTURE WITHOUT HISTORICAL MEMORY.

After achieving independence, the interest of our people in the knowledge of their Motherland, its language, culture, values, and history is growing. This is a natural phenomenon. Each person has an inherent desire to know his family tree, who his ancestors were, the history of the village, the city where he was born and raised, in a word, the history of the Motherland. Today, the whole world recognizes that the region called Uzbekistan, that is, our Motherland, is one of the cradles of not only Eastern, but also world civilization. This ancient and sacred land has nurtured great scientists, thinkers, politicians, generals. On this land, the foundations of religious and secular sciences were laid and developed. Built before our era and later, complex hydraulic structures, ancient monuments that have not lost their beauty and majesty, testify to the fact that agriculture, crafts, culture, architecture and the art of urban planning have been highly developed here since ancient times. The inscriptions and drawings on stones that survived the ruthless trials of time and are now stored in libraries are more than 20 thousand manuscripts, which depict tens of thousands of scientific works on history, literature, art, ethics, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, architecture, agriculture - this is truly priceless spiritual wealth and our pride. There are few peoples in the world with such a great heritage. And that is why I can boldly say that few countries in the world can compare with us in this respect.

The time has come for a serious study of these unique manuscripts, reflecting the life experience that our ancestors have accumulated over the centuries, their religious, moral, scientific views. For, as you know, in the Soviet period, the desire to know the historical truth was not encouraged. Sources that did not serve the interests of the dominant ideology were hiding as far as possible from the eyes of the people. Our scientists create works on various periods of history, writers write large prose, poetic and dramatic works on a historical theme. Noteworthy is the fact that the media widely promote our spiritual values, in conversations, discussions, a variety of opinions appears. I am especially pleased that our younger generation, feeling personally responsible for the future fate of the nation, the Motherland, participates in the debate with a sense of involvement in this.

There is a proverb - “Chumchuk soisa kham kassob soisin”1. I am not a historian. And it is completely far from the idea of ​​teaching specialists in this regard. However, a natural question arises: at the time of the entry of our statehood into a period of a sharp turn, do we need to clearly define your place in time and space, know your family tree, know who we are? Is it necessary or not for respected academicians, writers, publishers, scientists, and, above all, historians, who are actively working in our country, to answer these questions together?..

In my opinion, when it comes to the historical past of the Uzbek people, their identity and spirituality, we lack an analysis based on a deep scientific basis, a clear approach to certain issues. In scientific terms, there is no holistic concept. Self-awareness begins with knowledge of history. This truth, which does not require proof, must be raised to the level of public policy.

There is a special responsibility to speak from a high rostrum about a nation, a country. Let's not forget that when an attitude towards an event or person is expressed, this can only be the point of view of one person or people of a certain category. Worst of all, subjective opinion can be contagious. One-sided opinion, not based on deep analysis, on logic, confuses people, and above all history teachers. Accepting what they heard as truth, they bring it to the students. Only those conclusions that were born as a result of a dispute, discussion, analysis can show us the right path. This is first.

Second lies in the fact that we have declared the upbringing of a harmoniously developed person a priority direction of state policy. When we talk about a harmoniously developed person, we mean, first of all, erudite, educated, enlightened people with a high consciousness, capable of thinking independently, being an example for others. A conscious, educated person cannot be deceived by confused, dubious rantings. He weighs everything on the scales of reason, logic. A mature person is one who correlates his thoughts, opinions, conclusions with logic.

We are building a free democratic society. For us, there are no closed topics at all. We have a nationwide tribune - television, radio, and the press. For people with good intentions, the borders are always open. Guests come to us from abroad, and we travel to foreign countries. We often host international forums. We need knowledgeable, smart, educated people who at these forums will be able to freely debate with leading scientists in any field - be it economics, politics, history, culture.

Why do I often repeat the word “enlightenment” and place special emphasis on it? Enlightenment is the basis for the development of society, it is the only force that can save it from inevitable catastrophe. Remember the events that unfolded in Turkestan at the beginning of our century. Why did the movement of enlightenment intensify in this region in those years like never before? Yes, because to awaken the land that fell under the yoke of tsarist Russia, faced with regression, to open the eyes of the people could only be through enlightenment. Enlightenment today has not lost and will not lose its significance for us in the future. We can achieve our goals only when we manage to educate smart, educated, highly moral people, only then will prosperity and progress reign in the country. If we cannot solve this problem, then all our calls and hopes will be in vain: then we will not see any progress, no bright future, no prosperity!

That is why we once organized the republican center “Ma'rifat va manaviyat”. Regional and district branches of the center were opened. And now it's not about the fact that large sums were allocated from the budget of the republic. We'll help you more if needed. But how can one understand that work in this area is lagging behind the required level, that the organization allows formalism in its activities? Seeing this state of affairs, one involuntarily wants to exclaim: my dear, you are not an employee of the Soviet-era political education house, you have completely different tasks. We created this organization not only to receive salaries there. Indeed, in fact, moral education, the promotion of knowledge is a matter of conscience for every intellectual. The enlightener must be a selfless person. We understand, and they must have their daily bread, feed their families and children. That's why we gave them a salary. However, I repeat once again: an educator must first of all be a selfless person, a fanatic of his work.

I was talking about the enlightenment movement at the beginning of the twentieth century. Did the representatives of this movement enter the arena of struggle for the sake of wealth, for the sake of fame? Did someone pay salaries to Mahmudhoja Behbudi, Munavvar Kori, Fitrat, Tavallo for opening schools, calling on the people to defend their rights? Someone paid them for this? Of course not! They knew they were playing with fire, that they would be severely punished for their fight against colonialism. Knowing this, they consciously followed this path. Because their conscience and conviction called them to this.

Let's now move on to the main topic. So what place does history have in our spirituality? Is it possible to achieve high spirituality without knowing history? Of course not!

To restore spirituality, to feel no lower than others in the country in which he was born and raised, to walk with his head held high, a person, of course, needs historical memory.

Naturally, every person, being the son of his nation, asks questions, and who were my ancestors, where are the origins of my nation, how did the process of its formation, revival and formation take place? Why did the level of development of the nation, which gave the world such great people as Ahmad al-Fargoni, Muhammad Khorazmi, Ibn Sino, Abu Raykhon Beruni, Imam al-Bukhari, Amir Temur, Ulugbek, Alisher Navoi, Bobur, become lower by the 17th-19th centuries the former, achieved up to that time? Why have we not been able to overcome backwardness for three centuries? Was this backwardness, despite the strong resistance of our ancestors, the reason for the relatively easy conquest of our region by tsarist Russia?

A person who studies the roots of history, of course, one day will face these questions, and, I am sure, will draw the right conclusions. A person who has a historical memory is a persistent person. I repeat, persistent man.

If every member of society, no matter who he is, knows his past well, then such a person is difficult to confuse, subject to the influence of various dogmas. The lessons of history teach a person vigilance, strengthen his will.

From the above reasoning, naturally, the following question arises: has a true history of Uzbekistan, the Uzbek people, been created, which should be brought to the masses today? I don't consider history written in Soviet times to be history. I am totally opposed to teaching history written by strangers. When did the colonialists express an objective, fair opinion about the people they subjugated? They spent all their energy on belittling the past of Turkestan, depriving us of their history. You seem to understand well what it means to lose history. To lose a story for a person is the same as to lose a life.

The history of the Khorezm state, as we know, is 2700 years old. But try asking any famous Russian historian, past or present, if he admits this? Does not recognize, does not know and does not want to know. And there is only one reason for this stubbornness: if he admits this fact, then his historical conclusions will be nullified, and it will become obvious that he went the wrong way in science. Three thousand years have already passed since the creation of our sacred ancient manuscript “Avesta”. This unique book is a spiritual, historical heritage left to future generations from our ancestors who lived 30 centuries ago on this beautiful land between two rivers. "Avesta" is a historical document, which also testifies to the fact that in this ancient region there was a great state, great spirituality, great culture. And no one can deny this fact. However, as has been said, I do not know that any foreign journalist or Western writer in general has mentioned the "Avesta". From this we can conclude that most of the judgments expressed in distant countries about the past of our people, country, are false, anti-scientific.

I say what I know, I am forced to draw such a conclusion. It is regrettable that when it comes to our history, we still rely on the research of Russian scientists, we quote them: “Bartold said this ... Gumilyov said that ...”, etc. I do not want to belittle the work of Russians scientists. But how long will we evaluate our history by other people's standards? Why are studies not carried out that provide a comprehensive analysis of the political, social, economic, cultural life, the development of statehood in a country in such a great period? We also have institutes of oriental studies, archeology, history and others. What are specialists doing, where do they look? When did Uzbek statehood emerge? It turns out that in the 20s of the twentieth century, or rather, in 1924, Uzbekistan received the status of a state. And should you believe it? As a person at the head of the newly formed Uzbek statehood, I have the right to say - and this is not boasting - I am ready to give my life for this. Because this is the meaning of my life. However, not only I, but all the people want to know: in what century did the Uzbek statehood arise? What historical stages did it go through? Maybe the experts will explain, maybe they have the exact answer? Maybe the scientists who are conducting propaganda work have long come to a consensus? However, so far I have not been able to find the answer to these questions either in print or in textbooks.

Once again I will say that I do not dare to criticize or blame the scientists working in this field. I also know well the era in which scientific thinking and the views of many scientists were formed. I know those working in the field of historical science as my fellow patriots. And so I can demand from them: when will you prepare an accurate, scientifically based, true history of our country for our children?

Statehood is now an important political issue. For there are still forces that, through third parties, carry out propaganda that there was no statehood in Uzbekistan, they are trying to introduce this idea into our consciousness and even assure the international community of this. And do you think that among such instigators there are no people who dream of returning us to the former USSR in any way? The main task of Uzbek historians today is to prove the groundlessness of such statements, to create a history of our statehood based on a scientific point of view.

If an article concerning our past appears in our press, I get acquainted with it, regardless of whether it is scientific or artistic. A person who considers himself a politician, an activist, if he has a conscience, must know the historical past of his people.

We were born and raised on this earth. We all consider ourselves Uzbeks. We are proud of it. I recently read a poem by Muhammad Yusuf. He writes about what you need to know to understand the concept of "Uzbek". good poem! Now, if only our scientists gave scientific interpretation of such big ideas.

For example, did a sedentary or nomadic culture form the basis of the life of our ancient ancestors? What tribes influenced the formation of the Uzbek people? I know these are difficult questions. However, we need to find answers to them.

Representatives of neighboring states and nations, like us, also have a noticeable desire to re-learn their history in depth. This is probably correct. Every nation has its own national pride. Various books are published, large forums are held. In order to study the sacred heritage of our ancestor Ahmad Yasawi, meetings are held in Turkestan, and in Istanbul, and in Izmir. And it would be good if, at these meetings, conferences, representatives of Uzbekistan, relying on scientific and historical foundations, in-depth research, without indulging in individual conjectures, armed themselves with truthful evidence and evidence.

I want to repeat again: since we consider ourselves a nation, we must have a specific idea that characterizes the Uzbeks. There is a Turkic-speaking people, there is a Turkish people. Every citizen, especially our children, should know the difference between these concepts. Why, then, when we touch on these issues, our historians are stubbornly silent, as if they took water in their mouths?

Recently, a program was broadcast on television about the state of the Huns, about Attila, who once ruled this state. Attila, capturing the Volga territories, the Astrakhan steppes, reached Eastern Europe, then, having conquered Western Europe, reached the Roman Empire and divided it into two parts - Rome and Byzantium.

In Russian and Western sources and literature, the Huns are called “Huns”. The Huns, led by Attila, invaded Rome and completely destroyed it. These events took place approximately at the end of the 4th - the first half of the 5th century. The host of the program, a scientist, fully conveyed to the viewer the details of who Attila took as his wife, on whose instructions and by whom he was poisoned. Even called the exact date of birth of Attila. God knows, could this scientist correctly answer the question about the date of birth of Beruni? The most interesting is ahead. The Huns allegedly turned the Romans away from addiction to alcoholic beverages and, having assimilated with them, healed the nation and thus extended their lives. It turns out that they also brought culture to Rome...

Meanwhile, in the West, Attila is remembered not as a person who brought culture, but as an invader who destroyed a great civilization. We are entering the 21st century. So much time has passed, but they cannot forget the deeds of Attila.

One of my Kalmyk friends recently gave me a book. This book says - what do you think? -- that Attila's flag had a cross on it. What did the author mean by this?

I wanted to say that Christianity also came to Europe from the desert? And we, the Uzbeks, are also supposedly descendants of this Attila. It turns out we should be proud of it. First, for the time being, probably, no one can say whether there is a basis for such serious conclusions. Secondly, being a descendant of an invader is not pride, but a shame! If we succumb to such provocations, what will Europe say about us tomorrow? Where does all this come from, who needs such a false authority?!

We present the Uzbeks to the whole world as a great, creative people. And this is how it really is. What was the purpose of holding the anniversary of our ancestor Amir Temur at the Paris headquarters of UNESCO? To present to the people of the whole world that this perfect man was the founder of a great state, was a great creator, a creative person, supported science, culture, made a huge contribution to the development of world civilization.

In this forum, in which Mr. Jacques Chirac himself took part, I tried to prove this idea, relying on reliable sources. I said that Temur, who laid the foundations of our statehood, will always remain for us an example of enthusiasm, deep wisdom, initiative, and patriotism. We always receive spiritual support from this great personality.

As it turned out, both in Paris and in Europe in general, attempts were made to belittle the authority of Sahibkiran. Recognizing him as a great commander, he was accused - even the tongue does not turn to pronounce it - of cruelty. It is easy to prove that there is no logical basis for this. A person cannot be both a creator and a barbarian at the same time. What madrasahs and mosques, what beautiful palaces he built, supported scientists and educators. A person who knows the Koran by heart cannot be a barbarian. Can a bloodthirsty person say: “Strength is in justice”?!

At a time when it comes to raising the authority of Uzbekistan, it is not good for us to be the heirs of some attils. I am categorically against this. If we need to be someone's heirs, then we are the heirs of Beruni, Al-Bukhari, Amir Temur, Mirzo Ulugbek, Mirzo Bobur. Everyone knows the character of an Uzbek. He loves the earth, nature. He grows a tree, carrying water for it even in his skullcap. Uzbek in its essence is a creator. He does not need foreign land. And if he has to take up arms, then only in order to protect his native land.

In my interview to Tafakkur magazine, developing Amir Temur's idea that power is in justice, I added that power is in knowledge. Where is enlightenment, spirituality, and where is Attila?!

Let's think more deeply: putting forward Attila as an argument, don't they want to say that, they say, you, Uzbeks, are a nomadic people?

Yesterday I took a look at the map again. The Huns went to Europe through the north, the Kipchak steppe. Their foot did not set foot either in the great Bukhara, or in the great Samarkand, or in the great Khorezm.

Then how could the Uzbeks be Huns?

That's right, throughout our history, no matter how many conquerors entered the territory of Maverounnahr for many years, and maybe even centuries, no matter what dynasties of foreigners dominated our land. In a word, are there really many of those who have visited our lands for thousands of years? From Iran - Achaeminids, from Greece - Alexander, from Arabia - Kutayba, from Mongolia - Genghis Khan, Russian conquerors came. But the people remained. What is the secret here? How, thanks to what internal forces, could the people preserve itself, its essence? Is it not because from ancient times he led sedentary life, strove for knowledge, possessed a rich culture, considered sacred their customs and traditions?

When did the name “Uzbeks” appear? As Soviet historians write, the name “Uzbeks” appeared somewhere in the 16th century, after the capture of our lands by the khans of the Kipchak steppe. But even before that, people lived in Maverounnahr on the territory between two rivers. Or did this people belong to another nation? Where is the logic here?

If we accept this version left from the Soviet era, then the wrong conclusion will follow that the history of our nation began with the period of these next invaders? Then where is our centuries-old history? Since Samarkand, Bukhara, and Khiva belong to the Uzbeks, since there was an Uzbek state here, why should we start our history from the 16th century, from the period when foreigners, having visited our lands, left their names? After all, even before that settled people lived here! This settled people had its own culture! Whoever attacked, for example, the Mongols, who dominated from the 20s of the XIII century to the 70s of the XIV century, there was an interaction of cultures, and yet the culture of the local people remained the main one, it was she who prevailed.

We learn about a nation not by its name, but by its culture, through its spirituality, peer into the origins of its history.

Once again I repeat: I am not a historian. However, if we logically analyze the main patterns of the historical development of the peoples of the world, in general, and our region, in particular, it will become clear that Alexander (who is better known in the East under the name of Iskandar Zulkarnain), and Kutayba, and Genghis Khan, and General Chernyaev, whoever entered our land with an army of several tens or hundreds of thousands of soldiers, whoever seized it, took only political power into their own hands. Once again I repeat: political power. And that's it. Indeed, during the period of their reign, they made every effort to use the economic, commercial, scientific, cultural opportunities of our country in their own interests. However, they could not and would not have been able to destroy the indigenous population that has lived here for centuries, its centuries-old culture.

Maslenitsa is one of the most joyful and bright holidays. For a whole week, people see off the boring winter, bake pancakes and visit each other. Completed by: Anastasia Vlasova, 5th grade student. Head: Vlasova T.I., teacher of fine arts

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MOU "Ostashevskaya secondary school"

Completed by: Vlasova Anastasia,

5th grade student.

Head: Vlasova T.I.,

art teacher

S. Ostashevo.

year 2012.

Story.

Maslenitsa is one of the most joyful and bright holidays. For a whole week, people see off the boring winter, bake pancakes and visit each other.

Maslenitsa for us is like a carnival for Italians. Moreover, in translation from Italian "carnival"means "beef, goodbye!". And the Maslenitsa preceding Great Lent has long been called "Meat Empty", since it was forbidden to eat meat on this week.

Some historians believe that in ancient times Maslenitsa was associated with the day of the spring solstice, but with the adoption of Christianity, it began to anticipate Lent and depend on its timing. However, this is not all about the meaning of Maslenitsa. For the Slavs for a long time It was also a meeting of the New Year! Indeed, until the XIV century, the year in Rus' began in March. Even pancakes, an indispensable attribute of Maslenitsa, had a ritual meaning: round, ruddy, hot, they were a symbol of the sun, which flared up brighter, lengthening the days. And according to old beliefs, it was believed: as a person meets the year, so he will be. That is why our ancestors did not skimp on this holiday for a generous feast and unbridled fun. And the people called Maslenitsa "honest", "wide", "gluttonous", and even "the ruiner".

Centuries passed, life changed, with the adoption of Christianity, new church holidays appeared, but wide Maslenitsa continued to live. Nothing could force the Russians to give up their favorite holiday - hospitable and recklessly cheerful. By the way, one time Tsar Alexei Mikhailovichby the most severe measures he tried to calm down his daring subjects. The governors sent royal decrees around towns and villages, either forbidding private distillation, or demanding that Russians not gamble, do not hold fisticuffs. But neither the formidable royal decrees, nor the instructions of the patriarch were able to cope with overflowing fun.

But in 1724 in St. Petersburg Maslenitsa failed. Peter , a well-known lover of all kinds of entertainment, intended to arrange a funny sledge procession in the new capital, but the whole holiday week was blizzard and there was a severe frost. For several days, the participants in the procession in costumes and masks gathered at the gathering place, but, having stiffened along the way, they went to warm themselves to visit someone. Alas, the element won, the fun failed.

Catherine II on the occasion of her coronation, imitating Peter I, she staged a grandiose masquerade procession called “Triumphant Minerva” in Moscow during Shrovetide Week. For three days, a masquerade procession traveled around the city, which, according to the empress's plan, was supposed to represent various social vices - bribery, embezzlement, bureaucratic red tape and others, destroyed by the beneficial rule of the wise Catherine.

Over time, "rolling fun" in the cities improved. Wooden slides with elegant pavilions began to be erected on the ice of the river or on the squares. The slides were decorated with colorful flags, spruce and pine branches, even wooden sculptures. In St. Petersburg at the beginning of the 19th century, the mountains of the merchant Podoznikov were famous. They were built on the Neva against the Senate and reached 26 meters in height. By the way, skiing from the city mountains at that time was paid and cost a penny. A brisk trade in hot sbiten, tea from smoking samovars, sweets, nuts, pies and pancakes unfolded near the icy mountains. The audience in large booths was amused by buffoons and a beloved folk hero Parsley.

In villages where there were no booths, the inhabitants themselves became actors an unusual battle - the capture of a snowy town. Having gathered, they together built a fortress from the snow with intricate towers and gates. Most often they put it on the ice of the river and cut through the wormwood in the middle. Then the participants of the game were divided into two parties. The equestrian braves besieged the fortress, and its defenders fought back with snowballs, brandished twigs and brooms, frightening the horses. The winner, who burst into the gate first, was expected by a test: he was forced to swim in an ice hole.

But the most beloved and beautiful Shrovetide rite there was sledding. Everyone who had a horse rode out, and assorted teams rushed through the streets: the rich flaunted sleek trotters and painted sleds covered with carpets, and after them galloped peasant horses, polished to a shine, decorated with colored ribbons.

Of course, pancakes were the main treat at Maslenitsa. They were baked and eaten in myriad quantities.

There were certain ceremonies for each day of Shrovetide week. On Monday - a meeting of Maslenitsa, on Tuesday - flirting. For gourmets, that is, on Wednesday of Shrove Week, mother-in-laws invited their sons-in-law and their wives to pancakes. This custom was especially observed in relation to the young, recently married. Surely this is where the expression "to the mother-in-law for pancakes" came from. The most crowded luge rides took place on Broad Thursday. On Friday - the mother-in-law's evening - the sons-in-law called the mother-in-law for a treat. Saturday was reserved for the sister-in-law gatherings. Sunday was called "Forgiveness Day". On this day, everyone visited relatives, friends and acquaintances, exchanged kisses, bows and asked for forgiveness from each other if they offended by words or deeds.

History of money

It is believed that the very first coins appeared in China and in the ancient Lydian kingdom in the 7th century BC. Around 500 BC Persian king Darius made an economic revolution in his state by introducing coins into circulation and replacing barter with them.

Well-preserved rock inscriptions in Persepolis (modern Iran) testify to the changes that were taking place.

Paper money appeared in China in the 8th century AD (paper was first produced there in 100 AD). The earliest type paper money in China, it was a special receipt issued either against valuables deposited in special shops, or as evidence of taxes paid, stored in accounts in the centers of the provinces, and not in the capital.

Did paper money make a big impression on travelers visiting China in VII? VIII centuries. Marco Polo wrote that the issuance of paper money is new way achieve the goal that the alchemists have long striven for. In the 13th century, the government of Genghis Khan freely exchanged paper banknotes for gold, so counterfeiting paper money brought large profits and was considered a terrible crime. By 1500, the Chinese government was forced to stop issuing paper money due to the difficulties associated with overissuance and inflation, but private banks already existing in China continued to issue paper money.

It is known that at different times and in different regions of the world, metal ingots, shells, feathers, cocoa beans, cattle, etc. served as money.

In the USA, back in the 18th century, in some states, wampums served as money - special Indian necklaces, receipts showing the quantity and quality of tobacco, animal skins, etc.

Chronology of the emergence of banknotes:

Approximately 3-2 thousand BC. e. The first banks appear in Mesopotamia. Their role was played by the temples and palaces of local rulers, which provided services for the safe storage of goods.

Approximately 2250 BC. e. The rulers of Cappadocia (now Turkish territory) for the first time began to guarantee the quality and weight of silver bars that served as money.

Approximately 1200 BC. e. Appears Chinese character"money", which denoted cowrie shells, which served as a universal means of payment. In some regions of Asia, kauri retained this function until the middle of the 20th century.

Approximately 1000 - 500 years BC. e. In China, prototypes of money appear: ingots of metal in the form of shovels, hoes and knives, which were previously used as a medium of exchange.

Approximately 640-630 g to. n. e. In Lydia (the territory of modern Turkey), money was first invented in modern sense this word. These were round coins made of electron (an alloy of gold and silver).

Approximately 600 g to. n. e. The first reliable evidence of the existence of banking operations similar to the current ones. The banker Typhius had a network of offices in various cities of Greece and Ionia. He used a non-cash payment - merchants and travelers carried with them not money, but receipts from the Tithia bank.

Around the same time, iron coins began to be minted in China. Prior to this, money was made only from precious metals and their value, in fact, was equal to the value of the material from which they were made. In China, for the first time, they began to use cheaper material for making money and introduced the concept of "value".

Approximately 500 g to. n. e. Greek authors describe the reforms of the Spartan legislator Lycurgus. Lycurgus for the first time in the world tried to pursue a policy of financial isolationism. He forbade the use of gold and silver coinage in order to limit the activities of foreign merchants in luxury goods. Spartan money was made deliberately large and heavy, not even very good for transportation. large sums a cart pulled by a horse was required. They were not convertible - they were refused to be accepted for payment everywhere except Sparta.

910 Mass production of paper money begins in China.

Title page

Introduction…………………………………………………………………….....3

What is history? ....................................................... .......................................5

The subject of history as a science: purpose, objectives of study, socially significant functions………………………………………………………..……...8

1. Periodization of world history……………………………………….13

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...14

List of used literature……………………………………….16

Introduction

Interest in the past has existed since the beginning of the human race. This interest is difficult to explain by human curiosity alone. The fact is that man himself is a historical being. It grows, changes, develops over time, is the product of this development.

The original meaning of the word "history" goes back to the ancient Greek term meaning "investigation", "recognition", "establishment". History was identified with the establishment of authenticity, the truth of events and facts. In Roman historiography (Historiography is a branch of historical science that studies its history), this word began to mean not a way of recognizing, but a story about the events of the past. Soon, “history” began to be called in general any story about any case, incident, real or fictional. At present, we use the word "history" in two senses: firstly, to denote a story about the past, and secondly, when it comes to the science that studies the past.

The subject of history is defined ambiguously. The subject of history can be social, political, economic, demographic history, the history of the city, village, family, private life. The definition of the subject of history is subjective, connected with the ideology of the state and the outlook of the historian. Historians who take materialistic positions believe that history as a science studies the patterns of development of society, which, ultimately, depend on the method of production of material goods. This approach prioritizes economics, society - and not people - in explaining causality. Historians adhering to liberal positions are convinced that the subject of the study of history is a person (personality) in the self-realization of natural rights granted by nature. The famous French historian Mark Blok defined history as “the science of people in time”.

1. What is history?

History is one of the oldest sciences, it is about 2500 years old. Its founder is the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (V century BC). The ancients valued history very much and called it "magistra vitae" (teacher of life).

History is usually defined as a science about the past- past reality, about what once happened to a person, a people, society as a whole. The story is thus reduced to simple analysis events, processes, states, somehow sunk into oblivion. Such an understanding of history is neither accurate nor complete; moreover, it is internally contradictory. In fact, history does not allow people to forget "their past life." History, as it were, resurrects the past, the past, rediscovering and reconstructing it for the present. Thanks to history, historical knowledge, the past does not die, but continues to live in the present, serving the present.

It is noteworthy that in Ancient Greece the patroness of history was Clio - the goddess who glorifies. The scroll and the slate stick in her hands are a symbol and a guarantee that nothing should disappear without a trace.

History is the collective memory of the people, the memory of the past. But the memory of the past is no longer the past in the proper sense of the word. This is the past, restored and being restored according to the norms of the present, with a focus on the values ​​and ideals of people's lives in the present, because the past exists for us through the present and thanks to it. K. Jaspers expressed this idea in his own way: "History directly concerns us ... And everything that concerns us, thereby constitutes the problem of the present for a person."

Initial meaning of the word "story" goes back to the Greek "ioropia", which means "investigation", "recognition", "establishment". Thus, initially "story" identified with a way of recognizing, establishing genuine events and facts. However, in Roman historiography, it has already acquired second meaning (a story about the events of the past), that is, the center of gravity was shifted from the study of the past to the narrative of it. During the Renaissance there is third the meaning of the word "history". By history they began to understand type of literature, special function which was establishing and fixing the truth.

However, as an independent field of knowledge, especially scientific, history was not considered for a long time. It did not have its own subject in the period of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and even in the Enlightenment. How does this fact fit in with the rather high prestige and wide distribution of historical knowledge? How to connect it with a huge number of works containing historical information, from Herodotus and Thucydides, through countless medieval chronicles, annals and "lives", to historical studies of the beginning of the New Age? This is explained by the fact that history has long been integrated into common system knowledge. In the eras of Antiquity and the Middle Ages, it existed and developed in combination with mythology, religion, theology, literature, and to some extent with geography. During the Renaissance, she was given a powerful impetus geographical discoveries, flourishing art, political theories. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. history was connected with political theory, geography, literature, philosophy, culture.

The need for the allocation of proper scientific knowledge began to be felt since the time of the natural scientific revolution (XVII century). However, even at the beginning of the 19th century, the “indivisibility” of “philosophical” and scientific knowledge, on the one hand, and of science itself in disciplines, on the other, continued to persist.

One of the first attempts to define the place of history as a scientific discipline with its own subject was made by German philosopher V. Krug in the work "Experience of a systematic encyclopedia of knowledge". The circle divided the sciences into philological and real, real - into positive (legal and theological) and natural, natural - into historical and rational, etc. In turn, the "historical" sciences were divided into geographical (place) and proper historical (time) disciplines.

At the end of the XIX century. French philosopher A. Naville divided all sciences into three groups:

1. "Theoretics" - "sciences about the limits of possibilities or laws" (mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, sociology).

2. "History" - "sciences about realized possibilities or facts" (astronomy, geology, botany, zoology, mineralogy, human history).

3. "Canonica" - "the science of the possibilities, the realization of which would be good, or the ideal rules of behavior" (morality, art theory, law, medicine, pedagogy).

2. The subject of history as a science: purpose, objectives of study, socially significant functions.

The study of any science begins with the definition of the concepts with which it operates in the process of cognition, both nature and society. From this point of view, the question arises: what is history as a science? What is the subject of its study? Answering this question, first of all, it is necessary to distinguish between history as any process of development of nature and society, which are closely related to each other, and history as the science of these processes.

We will consider history as a science in the development of human society in all its diversity. And since the history of society is a set of specific and diverse actions and actions of individuals, human communities that are in a certain relationship, constituting the whole of humanity, the subject of study of history is the activities and actions of people, the totality of relations in society.

The famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote about history as a science: “In the scientific language, the word “history” is used in a double sense: 1) as movement in time, a process, and 2) as knowledge of a process. Therefore, everything that happens in time has its own history. The content of history as a separate science, a special branch of scientific knowledge, is the historical process, i.e. the course, conditions and successes of human community or the life of mankind in its development and results.

Historians study their subject in time diversified, in parts, from different angles of view. Disorder, fragmentation, unevenness, "white spots" and "gray niches" of the past - such is the canvas of historical time. But historical knowledge as a whole allows, when necessary, to shift one's gaze and see all the diversity of the "world of history", structures and connections, events and actions, the existence of peoples and the everyday life of heroes and the "little" person, ordinary consciousness and global outlook.

Due to the fact that the content of historical science is the historical process that reveals itself in the phenomena of human life, and these phenomena are extremely diverse, accordingly, history is a diversified science, it is composed of a number of independent branches of historical knowledge, namely: political history, civil, economic history, cultural history, military history, state and law history, etc.

History is also subdivided according to the breadth of the study of the object: the history of the world as a whole (world or universal history); history of world civilizations; history of continents (history of Asia and Africa, Latin America); story individual countries and peoples (history of the USA, Canada, China, Russia, etc.).

A number of auxiliary historical disciplines have developed, developing general issues methods and techniques of historical research. Among them: paleography (the history of writing), numismatics (coins, orders, medals), toponymy (the study of the names of geographical places), source studies (general techniques and methods for studying historical sources), etc.

History is a specific science that requires precise knowledge of chronology (dates), facts, events. It is connected with other humanities and social sciences. These relationships developed in different periods in different ways, but the largest representatives historiographers have always believed in a "common market" for the social sciences. This belief continues today. Interpenetration and mutual enrichment social sciences, the so-called interdisciplinarity, is a phenomenon characteristic of the 20th century. It is due to the delimitation of the social sciences, their separation into independent areas of knowledge, as a result of which the process of division of labor and specialization was accompanied by a deepening of relationships.

History, as well as other humanities and social sciences of the late XIX - XX centuries. did not escape the influence and psychology. They were very popular at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. G. Lebon's books "Psychological laws of the evolution of peoples" (Lebon. 1894) and "Psychology of peoples and masses" (Lebon. 1895), which substantiated the assumption that European society entered the "era of the crowd", when a reasonable critical principle, embodied in personality, suppressed by the irrational mass consciousness. The Austrian psychologist Z. Freud believed that his concept of the "subconscious" could be the key to understanding historical figures, and Freud's "Essay" on Leonardo da Vinci, written in 1910, was essentially the first experience of psychohistory.

The term "psychohistory" appeared in the 1950s in the United States, where journals on psychohistory were published at that time. Their heroes were such historical figures as Hitler, Trotsky, Gandhi, etc. Psychoanalysis had a great influence on the criticism of some historical sources - diaries, letters, memoirs.

The fact of the author's psychological need for fantasies began to be taken into account. A separate topic was the study of diary entries about dreams. Examples of the application of psychoanalysis to social groups are known, for example, to the history of peasant and urban religious movements, in the study of which historians often deal with deviations. But in general, the flowering of psychohistory turned out to be short-lived, and the possibilities were limited.

Today, historians are aware of both the importance and the limitations of psychoanalysis for their discipline. The areas where psychoanalysis can be used effectively are outlined quite clearly: the study of prominent personalities, the study of cultural traditions. The task of synthesizing history and psychology, if it makes sense, is still a matter for the future.

Compared with other humanities and social sciences that study any one of the aspects of social life, history differs in that the subject of its knowledge is the totality of the life of society throughout the entire historical process. In addition, many problems of the past and present, which are dealt with by political scientists, economists, sociologists, ethnologists and other specialists in the humanitarian and social cycle, can only be solved on the basis of a historical approach and historical analysis, on the basis of the work done by historians, because only the collection, the systematization and generalization of vast factual material makes it possible to see and understand the tendencies of social development.

The study and teaching of history in modern conditions is complicated by a number of circumstances:

1. The process of rethinking the past in our country is taking place in the context of a change in the socio-economic and political system, in the context of the formation of new moral values. In this regard, history has become a real battlefield, a field of political struggle, on which not only scientifically based criticism but also politicized points of view collide, whose supporters are interested not so much in historical truth as in arguments in favor of their existence. And this instead of one half-truth gives rise to another.

2. History has always been closely linked with the politics, interests and destinies of the rulers, who rarely encouraged the desire of historians to know the truth and communicate it to society. Today it is felt especially sharply. Therefore, one has to face bias and subjectivity in assessing historical events, especially the Soviet period.

3. Unfortunately, the level of historical training and general political culture of our youth does not create favorable conditions for deep critical reflection and perception of numerous publications that distort the picture of the historical development of our country.

4. The situation is further complicated by the lack of textbooks. Available separate textbooks and study guides are single.

Under these conditions, the teaching of history acquires a general civic sound.

3. Periodization of world history.

One of the important problems of historical science is the problem of periodization of the development of human society. Periodization is the establishment of chronologically sequential stages in social development. The selection of stages should be based on decisive factors common to all countries or to leading states.

Since the development of historical science, scientists have developed many different options for the periodization of social development. To date, the periodization of world history is based on two principles: for the early periods of the formation of human society, the fundamental ones are the material from which the main tools were made and the technology for their manufacture. This is how the concepts of "Stone Age", "Copper-Stone Age", "Bronze Age", "Iron Age" appeared.

The dating of these periods is established using naturally scientific methods(geological, dendrochronology, etc.). With the advent of writing in the history of mankind (about 5000 years ago), other grounds for periodization arose. It began to be determined by the time of existence of various civilizations and states that kept their own account of time.

In general, world history is usually divided into four main periods:

Ancient world (the period from the isolation of man from the animal kingdom about 2 million years ago until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD).

Middle Ages(the period from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the beginning of the eras Renaissance XVI V.).

new time(from the Renaissance to 1918 - the end of the First World War).

Newest time(from 1919 to the present day).

Conclusion

Whatever subject historians study, they all use scientific categories in their research: historical movement (historical time, historical space), historical fact, theory of study (methodological interpretation).

Historical movement includes interrelated scientific categories of historical time and historical space.

Historical time only moves forward. Each segment of the movement in historical time is woven from thousands of connections, material and spiritual, it is unique and has no equal. Outside the concept of historical time, history does not exist. Events following one after another form a time series. There are internal links between events in the time series.

At the end of the 19th century, materialist historians divided the history of society into formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, and communist. At the turn of the 21st century, historical-liberal periodization divides society into periods: traditional, industrial, informational (post-industrial).

Theories of the historical process or theories of learning (methodological interpretation) are determined by the subject of history. Theory - a logical diagram explaining historical facts. By themselves, historical facts as "fragments of reality" do not explain anything. Only the historian gives the fact an interpretation that depends on his ideological and theoretical views. What distinguishes one theory of the historical process from another? The difference between them lies in the subject of study and the system of views on the historical process. Each schema-theory selects from a multitude of historical facts only those that fit into its logic. Based on the subject of historical research, each theory singles out its own periodization, defines its own conceptual apparatus, and creates its own historiography. Various theories reveal only their patterns or alternatives - variants of the historical process and offer their own vision of the past, make their own forecasts for the future.

Only the facts of history can be true, the interpretation of these facts is always subjective. Facts that are biased and built into a predetermined logical and semantic scheme (without explanation and conclusions) cannot claim to be an objective history, but are only an example of a hidden selection of facts of a certain theory.

Different learning theories that explain real historical facts do not take precedence over each other. All of them are “truthful, objective, true” and reflect the difference in worldviews, systems of views on history and modern society. Criticism of one theory from the position of another is incorrect, as it replaces the worldview, the subject of study. Attempts to create a common (single), universal theory, that is, to combine different theories - worldviews (subjects of study), are anti-scientific, as they lead to a violation of cause-and-effect relationships, to contradictory conclusions.

List of used literature:

Barg M. Civilization approach to history // Kommunist, 1991, No. 3.

Grechko P.K. Conceptual Models of History: A Handbook for Students. M.: Logos, 1995.

Danilevsky N.Ya. Russia and Europe. M.: Book, 1991.

Ionov I.N. Theory of civilization and the evolution of scientific knowledge // Social Sciences and modernity, 1997, No. 6.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Course of Russian history. M., 1956. T. I. Part I.

Marx M., Engels F. Sobr. op. T. 13, 22.

Rakitov A.I. Historical knowledge: system-epistemological approach. Moscow: Politizdat, 1982.

Savelyeva I.M., Poletaev A.V. History and time: in search of the lost. Languages ​​of Russian culture. M., 1997.

Semennikova L.I. Civilizations in the history of mankind. Bryansk: Cursive, 1998.

Toynbee A. Comprehension of history. M., 1991.

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