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What is "lubok" and "lubok pictures. What are luboks? Meaning of obsolete word

What is "lubok" and "lubok pictures. What are luboks? Meaning of obsolete word

28.02.2019

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Splint (lubok picture, lubok leaf, amusing leaf, prostovik) - a type of graphics, an image with a caption, characterized by simplicity and accessibility of images. Original view folk art. It was carried out in the technique of woodcuts, copper engravings, lithographs and was complemented by freehand coloring.

Lubok is characterized by simplicity of technique, conciseness visual means(rough stroke, bright coloring). Lubok often contains a detailed narrative with explanatory inscriptions and additional (explanatory, complementary) images to the main one.

Story

The most ancient luboks are known in China. Until the 8th century, they were drawn by hand. Since the 8th century, the first popular prints made in woodcuts have been known. Lubok appeared in Europe in the 15th century. Early European lubok is characterized by the xylography technique. Copper engraving and lithography are added later.

Due to its intelligibility and focus on the "broad masses", the popular print was used as a means of agitation (for example, "flying sheets" during the Peasants' War and the Reformation in Germany, popular prints of the Great French Revolution).

In Germany, picture factories were located in Cologne, Munich, Neuruppin; in France - in the city of Troyes. In Europe, books and pictures of obscene content are widespread, for example, "Tableau de l'amur conjual" (Picture of conjugal love). “Seductive and immoral pictures” were brought to Russia from France and Holland.

The Russian lubok of the 18th century is notable for its sustained composition.

In Russia

Story

IN Russia XVI century - early XVII For centuries, prints were sold, which were called "Fryazhsky sheets" or "German amusing sheets". In Russia, drawings were printed on specially sawn boards. The boards were called lub (from where deck). Drawings, drawings, plans were written on the bast since the 15th century. In the 17th century, painted bast boxes. Later, paper pictures were called lubok, lubok picture.

IN late XVI In the 1st century, a Fryazhsky mill was installed in the Upper (Court) printing house for printing Fryazh sheets. In 1680 the craftsman Afanasy Zverev cut "all kinds of Fryazh cuts" on copper boards for the tsar.

German amusing sheets were sold in the Vegetable Row, and later on the Spassky Bridge.

Censorship and prohibitions

Plots and drawings were borrowed from foreign Almanacs and Calendars. At the beginning of the 19th century, plots were borrowed from novels and short stories by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Anna Radcliffe, Sophie Cotten, Francois Rene de Chateaubriand and other writers.

At the end of the 19th century, pictures on themes from the scriptures, portraits of the imperial family prevailed, then there were genre pictures, most often of a moral and instructive nature (about the disastrous consequences of gluttony, drunkenness, greed), front editions of Yeruslan Lazarevich and other fairy tales, images in persons folk songs(“The boyars rode from Nova-Gorod”, “Husband’s wife beat”), female heads with absurd inscriptions, images of cities ( Jerusalem - the navel of the earth).

Lubok types

Spiritual and religious - in the Byzantine style. Icon type images. Lives of saints, parables, morals, songs, etc.
Philosophical.
Legal - images of lawsuits and court actions. Often there were plots: "Shemyakin Court" and " The Tale of Ersh Ershovich".
Historical - "Touching stories" from the annals. Image historical events, battles, cities. Topographic maps.
Fairy tales - fairy tales, heroic ones, "Tales of daring people", everyday tales.
Holidays - images of saints.
Cavalry - Luboks depicting riders.
Balagurnik - funny popular prints, satires, caricatures, fables.

Lubok production

One of the first Russian figure factories appeared in Moscow in mid-eighteenth century. The factory belonged to the merchants Akhmetievs. The factory had 20 machines.

19th century

IN mid-nineteenth For centuries, large figured printing houses have been operating in Moscow: Akhmetyev, Loginov, Shchurova, Chizhov, Kudryakov, Rudneva, Florova, girls Lavrentiev, Sharapova, Kirilov, Morozov, Streltsov, Yakovlev.

In the second half of the 19th century, one of the largest producers and distributors of printed popular prints was I. D. Sytin. In 1882, the All-Russian Art and Industrial Exhibition took place in Moscow, at which Sytin's products were awarded a silver medal.

ID Sytin collected boards from which popular prints were printed for about 20 years. The collection, worth several tens of thousands of rubles, was destroyed in a fire at Sytin's printing house during the Revolution of 1905.

At the end of the 19th century, Sytin produced annually about 2 million copies of calendars, about 1.5 million pictures on biblical stories and 900 thousand secular pictures, Morozov produced annually up to 1.4 million pictures, Golyshev's lithograph - about 300 thousand. Prostovikov, that is, the cheapest pictures, costing 1/2 a penny a piece, were printed and colored in the Moscow district for about 4 million annually. Top price popular prints was 25 kopecks.

Lubok in Russian playing cards by V.M. Sveshnikov

The evolution of Russian lubok

Lubok Meal of the pious and the wicked.png

Four-leaf splint "The Meal of the Pious and the Wicked"(XVIII century)

Lubok How the mice buried the cat.png

"How mice buried a cat"(XVIII century)

Lubok Bear with a goat is chilling.jpg

Bear and goat cool off(XVIII century)

A man weaves bast shoes(XVIII century)

Lubok the Brave Knight Franz Venetian.png

Brave Knight Franz Venetian(XIX century)

Lubok In the small village Vanka lived.png

In the small village Vanka lived ...(XIX century)

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Notes

Literature

// Yurkov S. E. Under the sign of the grotesque: anti-behavior in Russian culture (XI-early XX centuries). SPb., 2003, p. 177-187.
Folk picture of the XVII-XIX centuries, Sat. st., ed. Dmitry Bulanin, 1996.
Mikhail Nikitin. On the history of the study of Russian popular print / / Soviet art history. 1986. Issue 20. pp.399-419.
Anatoly Rogov"Pantry of Joy", Moscow, ed. Enlightenment, 1982.
Lubok, M., 1968.
Ivanov E. P. Russian popular popular print. With 90 single color and 13 colorful reproductions. M.: IZOGIZ, - 1937.
Lubok pictures // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
Rovinsky D. A., Russian folk pictures, St. Petersburg, 1881.
Ivan Snegirev Lubok pictures of the Russian people in the Moscow world. Moscow. In the University type., 1861.
Splint- article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.

An excerpt characterizing Lubok

- So, what did you decide, madonna?
I gathered all my courage not to show how my voice was trembling, and quite calmly said:
“I have already answered this question so many times, Holiness! What could have changed in such a short time?
There was a feeling of fainting, but, looking into Anna's eyes shining with pride, all the bad things suddenly disappeared somewhere ... How bright and beautiful my daughter was at that terrible moment! ..
“You are out of your mind, madonna!” Can you really just send your daughter to the basement? .. You know perfectly well what awaits her there! Come to your senses, Isidora!
Suddenly, Anna came close to Caraffe and said in a clear clear voice:
- You are not a judge and not God! .. You are just a sinner! That's why the Ring of Sinners burns your dirty fingers!.. I think it's not by chance that you are wearing it... For you are the meanest of them! You won't scare me, Caraffa. And my mother will never obey you!
Anna straightened up and... spat in Papa's face. Caraffa turned deathly pale. I have never seen anyone turn pale so quickly! His face literally turned ash gray in a split second ... and death flashed in his burning dark eyes. Still standing in the "tetanus" from Anna's unexpected behavior, I suddenly understood everything - she deliberately provoked Karaffa so as not to pull! .. To quickly solve something and not torment me. In order to go to my death myself... My soul was twisted with pain - Anna reminded me of the girl Damiana... She decided her fate... and I could not help. Couldn't interfere.
– Well, Isidora, I think you will greatly regret it. You are a bad mother. And I was right about women - they are all the devil's creation! Including my poor mother.
– Excuse me, Your Holiness, but if your mother is the offspring of the Devil, then who are you then?.. After all, you are flesh of her flesh? – sincerely surprised by his delusional judgments, I asked.
- Oh, Isidora, I have long ago destroyed this in myself! .. And only when I saw you, a feeling for a woman awakened in me again. But now I see that I was wrong! You are just like everyone else! You are terrible! .. I hate you and your kind!
Caraffa looked crazy ... I was afraid that this could end for us with something much worse than what was planned at the beginning. Suddenly, abruptly jumping up to me, the Pope literally yelled: - "Yes", or - "no"?! .. I ask you for the last time, Isidora! ..
What could I answer this insane person? .. Everything has already been said, and I could only remain silent, ignoring his question.
“I give you one week, madonna. I hope that you still come to your senses and feel sorry for Anna. And myself ... - and grabbing my daughter by the arm, Karaffa jumped out of the room.
I just now remembered that I need to breathe ... Dad so dumbfounded me with his behavior that I could not come to my senses and kept waiting for the door to open again. Anna mortally insulted him, and I was sure that, moving away from a fit of anger, he would definitely remember this. My poor girl! .. Her fragile, pure life hung by a thread, which could easily be cut off by the capricious will of Caraffa ...
For a while, I tried not to think about anything, giving my inflamed brain at least some respite. It seemed that not only Caraffa, but with him the whole world I knew had gone crazy... including my brave daughter. Well, our lives were extended for another week... Could anything have been changed? In any case, in this moment in my tired, empty head there was not a single more or less normal thought. I stopped feeling anything, stopped even being afraid. I think that's how people who went to their deaths felt...
Could I have changed anything in just seven short days, if I had not been able to find the “key” to Caraffa for four long years? .. In my family, no one ever believed in chance ... Therefore, hoping that something unexpectedly bring salvation - it would be the desire of the child. I knew there was no help to be found. Father clearly could not help if he offered Anna to take her essence, in case of failure ... Meteora also refused ... We were alone with her, and only we had to help ourselves. Therefore, I had to think, trying to the last not to lose hope, that in this situation it was almost beyond my strength ...
The air began to thicken in the room - the North appeared. I just smiled at him, feeling neither excitement nor joy, because I knew that he had not come to help.
- Greetings, Sever! What brings you back…?” I asked calmly.
He looked at me in surprise, as if not understanding my calmness. He probably did not know that there is a limit to human suffering, which is very difficult to reach ... But having reached, even the worst, it becomes indifferent, since even fear does not remain strong ...
“I'm sorry I can't help you, Isidora. Is there something I can do for you?
No, Sever. Can not. But I'll be glad if you stay by my side... I'm glad to see you," I answered sadly and, after a pause, added: "We got one week... Then Caraffa, most likely, will take our short lives. Tell me, are they really worth so little?.. Will we leave just as easily as Magdalene left? Is there really no one who would cleanse our world, the North of this nonhuman? ..
– I didn’t come to you to answer old questions, my friend... But I must confess that you made me rethink a lot, Isidora... You made me see again what I tried hard to forget for years. And I agree with you - we are wrong... Our truth is too "narrow" and inhuman. It suffocates our hearts... And we become too cold to correctly judge what is happening. Magdalena was right when she said that our Faith is dead... Just as you are right, Isidora.
I stood dumbfounded staring at him, unable to believe what I was hearing!.. Was it the same, proud and always right North, which did not allow any, even the slightest criticism of his great Teachers and his beloved Meteora? !!
I did not take my eyes off him, trying to penetrate his pure, but tightly closed from everyone, soul ... What changed his opinion, which had been established for centuries?! What prompted you to look at the world more humanely? ..
“I know I surprised you,” Sever smiled sadly. “But even the fact that I revealed myself to you will not change what is happening. I don't know how to destroy Caraffa. But our White Magus knows this. Do you want to go to him again, Isidora?
“May I ask what changed you, Sever? I asked cautiously, ignoring his last question.
He thought for a moment, as if trying to answer as truthfully as possible...
– It happened a long time ago... From the very day Magdalene died. I have not forgiven myself and all of us for her death. But our laws apparently lived too deeply in us, and I did not find the strength in myself to admit it. When you came, you vividly reminded me of everything that happened then... You are just as strong and just as giving of yourself for those who need you. You stirred up in me a memory that I tried to kill for centuries ... You revived in me Golden Mary... Thank you for this, Isidora.
Hiding very deep, pain screamed in Sever's eyes. There was so much of it that it flooded me with my head! .. And I just could not believe that I had finally opened his warm, pure soul. That he was finally alive again!
Sever, what should I do? Aren't you afraid that the world is ruled by such non-humans as Karaffa? ..
– I have already suggested to you, Isidora, let's go to Meteora again to see Vladyko... Only he can help you. Unfortunately I can't...
For the first time I felt his disappointment so vividly... Disappointment in his helplessness... Disappointment in the way he lived... Disappointment in his obsolete TRUTH...
Apparently, the human heart is not always able to fight what it is used to, what it has believed in all its conscious life... So is the North - he could not change so easily and completely, even realizing that he was wrong. He lived for centuries, believing that he was helping people... believing that he was doing exactly what, someday, would have to save our imperfect Earth, would have to help her finally be born... He believed in goodness and in the future, despite to the loss and pain that I could have avoided if I had opened my heart earlier...
But all of us, apparently, are imperfect - even the North. And no matter how painful disappointment is, you have to live with it, correcting some old mistakes and making new ones, without which our Earthly life would be unreal ...
– Do you have a little time for me, Sever? I would like to know what you did not have time to tell me in our last meeting. Have I bored you with my questions? If so, tell me and I'll try not to bother you. But if you agree to talk to me, you will give me a wonderful gift, because no one will tell me what you know, while I am still here on Earth...
– But what about Anna? .. Don't you prefer to spend time with her?
- I called her ... But my girl is probably sleeping, because she does not answer ... She is tired, I think. I don't want to disturb her peace. Therefore, talk to me, Sever.
He looked me in the eyes with sad understanding and quietly asked:
What do you want to know, my friend? Ask - I will try to answer you everything that worries you.
- Svetodar, Sever... What happened to him? How did the son of Radomir and Magdalena live his life on Earth?..
The North thought... Finally, taking a deep breath, as if throwing off the obsession of the past, he began his next exciting story...
- After the crucifixion and death of Radomir, Svetodar was taken to Spain by the Knights of the Temple to save him from the bloody paws of the "holy" church, which, no matter what it cost, tried to find and destroy him, since the boy was the most dangerous living witness, and also , a direct successor of the Radomir Tree of Life, which was supposed to change our world someday.
Svetodar lived and learned about his surroundings in the family of a Spanish nobleman, who was a faithful follower of the teachings of Radomir and Magdalene. Their children, to their great sadness, they did not have, so " new family” accepted the boy very cordially, trying to create for him as cozy and warm as possible home environment. They called him Amory there (which meant dear, beloved), since it was dangerous to call Svyatodar with his real name. It sounded too unusual for someone else's hearing, and risking Svetodar's life because of this was more than unreasonable. So Svetodar for everyone else became an Amory boy, and only his friends and his family called him by his real name. And then, only when there were no strangers nearby ...
Remembering very well the death of his beloved father, and still suffering severely, Svetodar vowed in his childish heart to “remake” this cruel and ungrateful world. vowed to dedicate his future life to others, to show how passionately and selflessly he loved Life, and how fiercely he fought for Good and Light and his dead father ...
Together with Svetodar, his own uncle, Radan, remained in Spain, who did not leave the boy night or day, and endlessly worried about his fragile, still unformed life.
Radan doted on his wonderful nephew! And he was endlessly frightened that one day someone would definitely track them down and cut off valuable life little Svetodar, who already then, from the very first years of his existence, was destined by a harsh fate to carry the torch of Light and Knowledge to our ruthless, but so dear and familiar, Earthly world.
Eight stressful years have passed. Svetodar turned into a wonderful young man, now much more like his courageous father - Jesus-Radomir. He matured and got stronger, and in his clear blue eyes, the familiar steel hue began to appear more and more often, which once flashed so brightly in the eyes of his father.
Svetodar lived and studied very diligently, hoping with all his heart to someday become like Radomir. Wisdom and Knowledge he was taught by the Magus Easten who came there. Yes, yes, Isidora! – noticing my surprise, Seever smiled. - the same Easten whom you met in Meteora. Istan, together with Radan, tried in every possible way to develop the living thinking of Svetodar, trying to open for him as widely as possible mysterious world Knowledge, so that (in case of trouble) the boy does not remain helpless and knows how to stand up for himself, meeting face to face with the enemy or losses.
Having said goodbye to his wonderful sister and Magdalena some time ago, Svetodar never saw them alive again... And although almost every month someone brought him fresh news from them, his lonely heart deeply yearned for his mother and sister - his the only real family, apart from Uncle Radan. But despite its early age, Svetodar already then learned not to show his feelings, which he considered the unforgivable weakness of a real man. He aspired to grow up as a Warrior like his father, and did not want to show his vulnerability to others. This is how his uncle Radan taught him... and this is how his mother asked in her messages... distant and beloved Golden Mary.
After meaningless and terrible death Magdalene, all inner world Svetodar turned into a continuous pain... His wounded soul did not want to put up with such an unfair loss. And although Uncle Radan had been preparing him for such an opportunity for a long time - the misfortune that had come fell upon the young man as a hurricane of unbearable torment, from which there was no escape... His soul suffered, writhing in impotent anger, for nothing could be changed... nothing could be returned back. His wonderful, tender mother has gone to a distant and unfamiliar world, taking his sweet little sister with her...

ubok - a folk picture, a type of graphics, an image with a caption, characterized by simplicity and accessibility of images. Originally a kind of folk art. It was carried out in the technique of woodcuts, copper engravings, lithographs and was complemented by freehand coloring.

Farnos - red nose. 17th century

From the middle of the 17th century, printed pictures for the first time appeared in Rus', called "Fryazhsky" (foreign). Then these pictures were called "amusing sheets", in the second half of the 19th century they began to be called popular prints. The manufacturing method was invented in China in the 8th century. The drawing was made on paper, then it was transferred to a smooth board and the places that should remain white were deepened with special cutters. The whole image consisted of walls. The work was difficult, one small mistake - and I had to start all over again. Then the board was clamped in a printing press, similar to a press, black paint was applied to the walls with a special roller. Carefully put a sheet of paper on top and pressed it. The print was ready. It remains to dry and paint. Lubki were made in different sizes. From China, the lubok technology was transferred to Western Europe in the 15th century. And in the middle of the XVII century to Russia. Foreigners brought luboks to give as gifts. And one of the foreigners made a machine for the show. Luboks are very fond of in Russia. Firstly, they retold history, geography, published literary works, alphabets, textbooks on arithmetic, and scripture. And all this was done with pictures. Sometimes many pictures were arranged in tiers. Sometimes there were texts on popular prints. Secondly, luboks served as decoration. Russian craftsmen gave the lubok a joyful character.

"Mice bury a cat", 1760

XVII-XVIII centuries. - this is the era of the reforms of Peter I, which not everyone liked. The secular lubok was an open instrument of political struggle. Opponents of the reforms of Peter I print luboks, which depict a cat with red bulging eyes, this is how the portrait of Peter I was painted. “Cat of Kazan”. Lubok "Mice bury a cat" appeared after the death of the emperor. Laughter was fundamentally new in lubok. This distinguishes it from the official Art XVIII century. the main task splint - decorate the house. There were also satirical luboks. Peter I issued decrees on the prohibition of satirical popular prints. But only after the death of the emperor, the lubok lost its political urgency. It acquired a fabulously decorative character. Bogatyrs, actors of a farce, jesters, real and fantastic animals, birds appeared. The heroes of the pictures are fairy-tale characters: the jesters Savoska and Paramoshka, Foma and Yerema, Ivan Tsarevich, Bova the King, Ilya Muromets. Lubok became more colorful, because it decorated the huts of peasants. The pictures were freely colored. The color was laid with decorative spots scattered. Initially red, the brightest and densest (gouache or tempera). Other colors are more transparent.

What colors were loved in Rus'?

(Red, crimson, blue, green, yellow, sometimes black). Painted so that the combination was sharp. High quality The drawing said that at first the luboks were painted by professional artists who, under Peter I, were left without work. And only then the gingerbread cutters and other city artisans joined. The plots of wall paintings and tiles (and what is a tile?) "moved" into engraving when folk architectural creativity was suspended, and the love for wall painting and wooden carving had not yet dried up. There was a whole series of portraits, or rather images of epic and literary characters: Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich, Nightingale the Robber, faces brave knights and their queens. Such portraits were popular among the people. And the reason was their artistic qualities. Drawn brightly, festively, Faces are pleasant, figures are slender, in beautiful clothes. The popular aesthetic ideals were embodied in the popular prints, the understanding of the dignity and beauty of a person was embodied. Lubok brought up artistic taste of people. And borrowed all the best from other arts.

Cat of Kazan, mind of Astrakhan, mind of Siberian (XVIII century)

How were the lubs made?

The engraver made the basis for the picture - a board and gave it to the breeder. He bought boards ready for prints, and sent the prints for coloring. Near Moscow, in the village of Izmailovo, there lived luboks who made engravings on wood and copper. Women and children were engaged in coloring popular prints.

How were the paints made, from what materials?

They boiled sandalwood with the addition of alum, resulting in crimson paint. The emphasis was on bright red or cherry color. Used lapis lazuli for blue paint. Paints were made from leaves and tree bark.

Each craftswoman painted in her own way. But everyone learned from each other, and used the best techniques in their work. Any topic was covered in a popular print with the utmost depth and breadth. For example, on four full sheets it was told about our Earth. Where, what peoples live. Lots of text and lots of pictures. Luboks were about individual cities, about different events. For example, they caught a whale in the White Sea, and a whale is drawn on a large sheet. Or how a man chooses a bride, or fashionable outfits, or ABCs.

Lubok - this name, perhaps, comes from Lubyanka Square, where there was a trade in bast products. At the corner of Rozhdestvensky Boulevard, the Church of the Assumption in Printers has been preserved. In the old days lived around the church masters of typographical business - printers. Not far away is another church "Trinity in the Sheets". Amusing and bright pictures were sold near her fence on holidays.

Or maybe this name comes from the word "bast" - bast, i.e. wood. The drawings were carved on wooden boards. They sold these pictures and carried them all over the land of the Russian ofen (peddlers), who kept their goods in bast boxes. They valued the popular prints very much. Nekrasov’s poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” tells how a peasant’s hut was on fire, and the first thing he brought out was pictures. There was never grief or crying in the lubok. He only rejoiced and amused, and sometimes denounced, but he did it with great humor and dignity. Lubok instilled in people faith in themselves, in their strength. Peddlers of popular prints - ofeny were expected everywhere. They brought pictures with letters to the kids, pictures with fashionable clothes about love to the girls, and something political to the men. Ofenya will show such a picture, and tell what's new in the country. It is for these pictures that both the official and the publishers got it.

In the 19th century, Moscow was the main supplier of popular prints. Here are the officers of other cities and wrote to the authorities in Moscow about political luboks.
I. D. Sytin was one of the largest and well-known manufacturers and distributors of printed popular prints in Russia.
Sytin's first luboks were called:
Peter the Great raises a healthy cup for his teachers;
how Suvorov plays money with village children;
how our Slavic ancestors were baptized in the Dnieper and overthrew the idol of Perun.
Sytin began to involve in the manufacture of popular prints professional artists. For signatures to luboks were used folk songs, poetry famous poets. In 1882 in Moscow took place art exhibition, where Sytin's popular prints received a diploma and a bronze medal of the exhibition.

ID Sytin collected boards from which popular prints were printed for about 20 years. The collection, worth several tens of thousands of rubles, was destroyed during a fire in Sytin's printing house during the 1905 Revolution.

In the old days, there was a lot of grief in the life of an ordinary person. However, the art of the people is extremely cheerful. In life folk art much in common with the life of nature. Like nature, it selects only the best and polishes it for centuries, creating a truly perfect technology, shape, ornament and color.

I offer you pictures contemporary artist and teacher Marina Rusanova. A series of pictures in the style of lubok on the theme of Russians folk proverbs the artist did very well. G. Courbet once said:
The true artists are those who start where their predecessors left off.
Good luck to Marina in this kind of graphics and success in her work towards cinematography.

In contact with

Originally a kind of folk art. It was carried out in the technique of woodcuts, copper engravings, lithographs and was complemented by freehand coloring.

Lubok is characterized by simplicity of technique, laconism of visual means (a rough stroke, bright coloring). Lubok often contains a detailed narrative with explanatory inscriptions and additional (explanatory, complementary) images to the main one.

An unknown 18th-century Russian folk artist. , CC BY-SA 3.0

Story

The most ancient luboks are known in China. Until the 8th century, they were drawn by hand. Since the 8th century, the first popular prints made in woodcuts have been known. Lubok appeared in Europe in the 15th century. The woodcut technique is typical for early European lubok. Copper engraving and lithography are added later.

Due to its intelligibility and focus on the “broad masses”, the popular print was used as a means of agitation (for example, “flying sheets” during Peasants' War and the Reformation in Germany, popular prints of the times of the Great french revolution).

Author unknown , CC BY-SA 3.0

In Germany, factories for the production of pictures were located in Cologne, Munich, Neuruppin; in France - in the city of Troyes. In Europe, books and pictures of obscene content are widespread, for example, "Tableau de l'amur conjual" (Picture of conjugal love). “Seductive and immoral pictures” were brought to Russia from France and Holland.

The Russian lubok of the 18th century is notable for its sustained composition.

Author unknown , CC BY-SA 3.0

Oriental lubok (China, India) is distinguished by its bright colors.

At the end of the 19th century, lubok was revived in the form of comics.