"Fantasy (eng. Fantasy) - view fantasy literature, or literature about the extraordinary, based on the plot assumption of an irrational nature. This assumption has no logical motivation in the text, assuming the existence of facts and phenomena that, unlike science fiction, are not amenable to rational explanation.

"In the most general case, fantasy is a work where fantasy element incompatible with scientific picture peace".

"Fantasy is a description of worlds like ours, worlds with magic working in them, worlds with a clear boundary between Darkness and Light. These worlds can be some variations of the Earth in the distant past, the distant future, an alternative present, and also parallel worlds existing out of touch with the Earth.

A number of researchers tend to define fantasy as a variety literary fairy tale. "In terms of external parameters, fantasy is a kind of fantasy tale" . "Fairytale phantasmagoria fictional worlds" calls the fantasy writer E. Gevorkyan.

"Fairy tale. This genre differs from science fiction in the absence of moralizing and attempts at messianism. From the traditional fairy tale - in the absence of division into bad and good," Nika Perumov's article says.

J.R.R. Tolkien, in his essay "On Fairy Tales", discusses the role of fantasy in the creation of wonderful secondary worlds. Tolkien exalts fantasy, like the Romantics of the early nineteenth century. But, unlike them, the writer considers fantasy not an irrational, but a rational activity. In his opinion, the author of a fantastic work must consciously strive for orientation to reality. It is necessary to give the fictional inner "logic of the real", starting with the fact that the author himself must believe in the existence of Fairy (consonant with fantasy), "a secondary world based on mythological imagination" . Another trend is the definition of fantasy through myth. This is quite natural, since fantasy literature always has a mythological basis.

"This genre arose on the basis of the authors' rethinking of the traditional mythological and folklore heritage. And in the best examples this genre one can find a number of parallels between the author's fiction and the mytho-ritual representations that formed its basis.

"The fantasy world is ancient myths, legends, tales passed through modern consciousness and revived by the will of the author." The clearest definition of fantasy is offered by the reference book "Russian Science Fiction of the 20th Century in Names and Faces": "Fantasy is a kind of fusion of a fairy tale, science fiction and an adventure novel into a single ("parallel", "secondary") artistic reality with a tendency to recreate, rethink the mythical archetype and form a new world within its boundaries.

Fantasy presupposes the content of an element of the extraordinary, i.e. stories about what does not happen, was not and cannot be. The basic meaning of the terms fantasy and fantastic is special way displaying reality in forms unusual for it. Features of fiction: 1) sending the extraordinary, i.e. story-forming assumption about the reality of extraordinary events; 2) the motivation of the extraordinary; 3) the form of expression of the extraordinary.

Fantasy is secondary to imagination, it is a product of imagination, it changes the face of reality reflected in the mind. In this case, we are also talking about a subjective beginning, a kind of substitution. Modern understanding fantasy also relies on the teachings of K.G. Jung, and then fantasy is a self-image of the unconscious; fantasy is most active when the intensity of the conscious falls, as a result, the barrier of the unconscious is broken.

Fantasy is a concept used to designate a category of works of art depicting phenomena that are emphatically different from the phenomena of reality. The figurativeness of fantastic literature is characterized by high degree conventionality, which can manifest itself in a violation of logic, accepted patterns, natural proportions and forms of the depicted. At the heart of any fantastic work lies the opposition "real - fantastic". The main feature of the poetics of the fantastic is the so-called "doubling" of reality, which is achieved either through the creation of a different reality, completely different from the real reality, or through the formation of a "two-world" consisting in the parallel coexistence of the real and unreal worlds. There are such types of fantasy as explicit and implicit.

The origins of the fantastic lie in the mythopoetic consciousness of mankind. Romanticism and neo-romanticism are traditionally considered to be the heyday of the fantastic. Fantasy gives rise to a special character of works of art, directly opposed to realism. Fantasy does not recreate reality in its laws and foundations, but freely violates them; it forms its unity and wholeness not by analogy with how it happens in the real world. By its nature, the regularity of the fantastic world is completely different from the regularity of the realistic. Fiction creatively reproduces not reality, but dreams, daydreams in all the originality of their qualities. This is the essential basis of fantasy, or its pure form.

There are three types of fantastic works. Works of fiction of the first kind - completely detached from reality - are pure dreams, in which no direct discretion is given to the real reasons for them or reasons. Fantastic works of the second kind, in which the secret basis for everyday phenomena, these are such dreams when we directly see the real reasons for miraculous images and events, or in general their connection with reality, i.e. when in the dream itself we contemplate not only fantastic pictures, but also their real causative agents or, in general, elements of the real world directly related to them - moreover, the real turns out to be in the role of a subordinate to the fantastic. Finally, fantastic works of the third kind, in which we directly contemplate no longer real stimuli or satellites. mysterious phenomena but it is the real consequences of them. These are those sleepy states when, in the first moments of awakening, while still in the power of dreamy visions, we see them implanted one way or another in the real world - descended into waking life. All three types of fantasy are equally common in works of art, but they are not equivalent.

The fantasy genre is a type of fantasy literature. In terms of the volume of publications and popularity among the average reader, fantasy has left far behind all other areas of science fiction. Among all literary movements it is fantasy that develops most rapidly, exploring new territories and attracting more and more readers.

Fantasy as a technique has been known to art since time immemorial. Actually, in one way or another, it is inherent in any kind of art. In literature, she went very long haul: from primeval myth To fairy tale, from fairy tales and legends - to the literature of the Middle Ages, and then romanticism. Finally, in contemporary literature it's science fiction and fantasy. These genres developed in parallel, sometimes touching in some way.

The question of the relationship between science fiction and fantasy has not been resolved so far. On the one hand, both are combined in one concept of "fantastic" and are perceived as its modifications. On the other hand, fantasy clearly opposes the kind of literature conventionally referred to as "science fiction."

Aesthetics of the pop genre

Rubber.

Performed:

4th year student 423 groups

Boboshko Margarita

Checked by: Professor

Andrachnikov S.G.

Moscow 2012.

Introduction

Rubber - originally considered circus genre, but has long since taken its niche on the stage. Let's see what is the appeal of this genre that will allow it to exist outside the arena. According to scientific information, this genre is called contortion- English word contortion stands for flexibility in all its manifestations. It was from him that the name contortion came from, characterizing the amazing and truly amazing performing art. This original genre stage skills is based on the unique abilities of a person to transform his body: fold in half, twist into rings, bend in a bizarre way.

"Rubber" - (eng. saoutchouc) as a circus term is found in special literature only at the very end of the last century. One must think that its occurrence is associated with the flourishing of the automotive and aviation industries, which required a huge amount of rubber for tires. The thick, viscous juice of rubber plants became the most profitable of the colonial goods. The word "rubber" has become fashionable. Apparently because of the properties of this material, they began to call people who have perfect flexibility of their body.

The history of the genre.

Most early information about him belong to times very, very distant.

IN ancient egypt during the feasts of Theban nobles and priests, acrobats performed, along with harpists and dancers with famous gladiators and hunters. From the drawings in the tombs, you can recreate a picture of the performance of acrobats of the past. It began with the fact that a string of swords was strengthened on a long board with the points up. To show how sharp swords are, the acrobat threw an apple on the tip of the sword. The halves of a cut apple were then offered to the public as a highly valued treat. The monuments of antiquity that have survived to this day - reliefs and wall paintings - store various images of "bridges" - the main pose of "rubber".

Demonstration of the flexibility of the body, like dance and pantomime, can be considered one of the origins of performing arts, the forefather of all circus genres.

How did this type of acrobatics originate? There is no exact information on this. It seems that its beginnings go back to those distant times, when ritual dances were performed in pagan temples. It is possible that during such a dance around the flame of the sacrificial fire, one of the priestesses in ecstasy leaned back deeply, arching her back beautifully in a pose that could attract with its unusualness and arouse imitation.

The flexible, trained human body, seemingly devoid of a bone base (which is why the artists who performed in this genre were advertised as "people without bones"), attracted attention at all times. This, in fact, led to the fact that the genre turned out to be so tenacious, passed through the centuries, not fading even today. IN ancient rome on the amphorae we can see colorful images of flexible acrobats, here the skillful artist, standing on her hands and arching her back sharply, began to carefully move along the board, and not just move, not with a step, but with “front bridges”, or, as they say in a professional environment, "Stand with bogen", while trying not to touch the dangerous obstacle - swords.

If it was traditional for the acrobats of Rome to demonstrate flexibility over the points of swords, for the ancient Greeks - on the shield held by the athlete, then Chinese artists millennia ago, they introduced an original, dispersed throughout the earth style of plastic acrobatics. Standing on a bench, painted national ornament, the acrobat smoothly deflected the body back, falling lower and lower, and now his head and shoulders passed over the soles of his feet. But this is only the beginning, the main thing was that the acrobat had to bend in such a way that, without the help of his hand-mouth, he could lift from the carpet Red flower poppy. This rise, a slow, tense rise, in which the outstanding elasticity of the body is expressively intertwined with the easily guessed strength of the legs, and still looks with exciting interest.

A little differently, but also in their own national-original manner, rooms were built Uzbek artists, flexible teenagers-muallakchi. With a copper basin filled with water, the Muallakchi walked around the spectators, who, as was customary from ancient times, threw coins into the basin. And although everyone knew well what would happen next, it nevertheless did not in the least affect close attention with which hundreds of eyes followed all the preparations, how, having put the basin on the ground, the muallakchi (most often they performed together with their teacher in twos, threes) began to make “bridges”, “wheels”, “rolls with elbows to feet." But this is just a "warm-up". Then the main thing began - the most prepared of the muallakchi, standing with his back to the pelvis, trying on again and again, descended onto the "bridge", immersed his face in water and managed to get his eyes out of the bottom of the coin for centuries.

novel literary narrative genre

The term "novel", which arose in the 12th century, managed to undergo a number of semantic changes over the nine centuries of its existence and covers extremely diverse literary phenomena. In addition, the forms that today are called novels appeared much earlier than the concept itself. The first forms of the novel genre date back to antiquity, but neither the Greeks nor the Romans left a special name for this genre. Using later terminology, it is customary to call it a novel. Bishop of Yue late XVII century, in search of the predecessors of the novel, he first applied this term to a number of phenomena in ancient narrative prose. This name is based on the fact that the ancient genre of interest to us, having as its content the struggle of isolated individuals for their personal, private goals, has a very significant thematic and compositional similarity with some types of the later European novel, in the formation of which the ancient novel played a significant role. The name "novel" arose later, in the Middle Ages, and originally referred only to the language in which the work was written.

The most common language of medieval Western European writing was, as you know, literary language ancient romans - latin. In the XII-XIII centuries. AD, along with plays, stories, stories written in Latin and existing mainly among the privileged classes of society, the nobility and the clergy, stories and stories began to appear written in the Romance languages ​​and distributed among the democratic strata of society that do not know Latin, among the merchant bourgeoisie, artisans, villans (the so-called third estate). These works, in contrast to the Latin ones, began to be called: conte roman - a romance story, a story. Then the adjective acquired an independent meaning. Thus, a special name for narrative works arose, which later settled in the language and over time lost its original meaning. A novel began to be called a work in any language, but not any, but only large in size, differing in some features of the subject, compositional construction, plot development, etc.

It can be concluded that if this term, which is closest to the modern meaning, appeared in the era of the bourgeoisie - the 17th-18th centuries, then it is logical to attribute the emergence of the theory of the novel to the same time. And although already in the 16th - 17th centuries. some “theories” of the novel appear (Antonio Minturno “Poetic Art”, 1563; Pierre Nicole “Letter on the Heresy of Writing”, 1665), only together with classical German philosophy did the first attempts to create a general aesthetic theory of the novel appear, to include it in the system of art forms. “At the same time, the statements of great novelists about their own writing practice acquire a greater breadth and depth of generalization (Walter Scott, Goethe, Balzac). The principles of the bourgeois theory of the novel in its classical form were formulated during this period. But a more extensive literature on the theory of the novel appears only in the second half of the 19th century. Now the novel has finally established its dominance as typical shape expressions of bourgeois consciousness in literature.

From a historical and literary point of view, it is impossible to talk about the emergence of the novel as a genre, since essentially "novel" is "an inclusive term, overloaded with philosophical and ideological connotations and indicating a whole complex of relatively autonomous phenomena that are not always genetically related to each other." The “emergence of the novel” in this sense occupies entire epochs, from antiquity to the 17th or even the 18th century.

The emergence and justification of this term, of course, was influenced by the history of the development of the genre as a whole. An equally important role in the theory of the novel is played by its formation in various countries.

LITERARY AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL

The historical development of the novel in different European countries reveals rather large differences, caused by the uneven socio-economic development and the individual uniqueness of the history of each country. But along with this, the history of the European novel also contains some common, recurring features that should be noted. In all major European literatures, although each time in its own way, the novel goes through certain regular stages. In the history of the European novel of the Middle Ages and Modern times, the priority belongs to the French novel. The representative of the French Renaissance in the field of the novel was Rabelais (first half of the 16th century), who discovered in his Gargantua and Pantagruel the full breadth of bourgeois free-thinking and the denial of the old society. "The novel is born in fiction bourgeoisie in the era of the gradual disintegration of the feudal system and the rise of the commercial bourgeoisie. According to its artistic principle, this is a naturalistic novel, according to the thematic and compositional principle, it is adventurous, in the center of which is “a hero who experiences all sorts of adventures, amusing readers with his clever tricks, an adventurer, a rogue” he experiences random and external adventures (a love trick, a meeting with robbers, a successful career, a clever money scam, etc.), without being interested in either deep social characteristics or complex psychological motivations. These adventures are interspersed with everyday scenes, expressing a penchant for rude jokes, a sense of humor, hostility towards the ruling classes, an ironic attitude towards their customs and manifestations. At the same time, the authors failed to capture life in its deep social perspective, limiting themselves to external characteristics, showing a tendency to detail, to savor everyday details. Typical examples of it are "Lazarillo from Tormes" (XVI century) and "Gille Blas" French writer Lesage (first half of the 18th century). From the petty and middle bourgeoisie to mid-eighteenth V. an advanced petty-bourgeois intelligentsia is growing up, starting an ideological struggle against the old order and using artistic creativity for this. On this basis, a psychological petty-bourgeois novel arises, in which the central place is no longer gamble, but deep contradictions and contrasts in the minds of the characters fighting for their happiness, for their moral ideals. The brightest example this can be called " New Eloise» Rousseau (1761). In the same era as Rousseau, Voltaire appears with his philosophical and journalistic novel Candide. In Germany at the end of the XVIII and in early XIX centuries a whole group of romantic writers who created very bright patterns psychological novel in different literary styles. Such are Novalis ("Heinrich von Ofterdingen"), Friedrich Schlegel ("Lucinda"), Tick ("William Lovel") and finally the famous Hoffmann. “Along with this, we find a psychological novel in the style of the patriarchal noble aristocracy, perishing along with the entire old regime and realizing its death in the plane of the deepest moral and ideological conflicts.” Such is Chateaubriand with his Rene and Atala. Other layers of the feudal nobility are characterized by the cult of elegant sensuality and boundless, sometimes unbridled epicureanism. From here come out noble novels Rococo with their cult of sensuality. For example, Couvre's novel "The Love Adventures of the Chevalier de Foble".

English novel in the first half of the 18th century. puts forward such major representatives as J. Swift with his famous satirical novel "Gulliver's Travels" and D. Defoe, the author of the equally famous "Robinson Crusoe", as well as a number of other novelists expressing the social worldview of the bourgeoisie.

In the era of the birth and development of industrial capitalism, the adventurous, naturalistic novel is gradually losing its significance. It is being replaced by a novel of social life, which arises and develops in the literature of those sections of capitalist society that turn out to be the most advanced, and in the conditions of a given country. In a number of countries (France, Germany, Russia), during the period when the adventurous novel is replaced by a social and everyday one, i.e., during the period when the feudal system is replaced by the capitalist one, the psychological novel with a romantic or sentimental orientation, reflecting the social imbalance of the transitional period (Jean- Paul, Chateaubriand and others). The heyday of the social novel coincides with the period of growth and flourishing of industrial capitalist society (Balzac, Dickens, Flaubert, Zola, and others). A novel is created according to the artistic principle - realistic. In the middle of the XIX century. The English realistic novel is making significant progress. Dickens' novels David Copperfield, Oliver Twist and Nicholas Nickleby, as well as Thackeray with his Vanity Fair, which gives a more embittered and stronger critique of the noble-bourgeois society, are the pinnacle of the realistic novel. “The realist novel of the 19th century is distinguished by its extremely sharp formulation of moral problems, which now occupy a central place in artistic culture. This is connected with the experience of breaking with traditional ideas and the task of finding new moral guidelines for the individual in a situation of isolation, to develop moral regulators that do not ignore, but morally streamline the interests of the real practical activity of an isolated individual.

A special line is the novel of "mysteries and horrors" (the so-called "Gothic novel"), the plots of which, as a rule, are chosen in the sphere of the supernatural and whose characters are endowed with features of gloomy demonism. The largest representatives of the Gothic novel are A. Radcliffe and C. Maturin.

The gradual transition of capitalist society into the era of imperialism with its growing social conflicts leads to the degradation of bourgeois ideology. The cognitive level of bourgeois novelists is declining. In this regard, in the history of the novel there is a return to naturalism, to psychologism (Joyce, Proust). In the process of its development, however, the novel not only repeats a certain regular line, but also retains some genre features. The novel is historically repeated in different literary styles, in different styles it expresses different artistic principles. And for all that, the novel still remains a novel: a huge number of the most diverse works of this genre have something in common, some repetitive features of content and form, which turn out to be signs of a genre that receives its classical expression in the bourgeois novel. “No matter how different those features of historical class consciousness, those social moods, those specific artistic ideas that are reflected in the novel, the novel expresses a certain type of self-consciousness, certain ideological needs and interests. The bourgeois novel lives and develops as long as the individualistic self-consciousness of the capitalist era is alive, as long as there continues to be an interest in individual fate, in personal life, in the struggle of individuality for their personal needs, for the right to life. These features of the content of the novel lead to the formal features of this genre. Thematically, the bourgeois novel depicts private, personal, everyday life and, against the background of it, the clash and struggle of personal interests. The composition of the novel is characterized by a more or less complex, straight or broken line of a single personal intrigue, a single causal chain of events, a single course of narration, to which all and all sorts of descriptive moments are subordinated. In all other respects, the novel is "historically infinitely varied".

Any genre, on the one hand, is always individual, on the other hand, it always relies on the literary tradition. The genre category is a historical category: each era is characterized not only genre system in general, but also genre modifications or varieties in particular in relation to a particular genre. Literary critics distinguish varieties of genre today on the basis of a complex of stable properties (for example, the general nature of the subject matter, the properties of imagery, the type of composition, etc.).

Based on the foregoing, the typology of the modern novel can be conditionally represented as follows:

The topics differ autobiographical, documentary, political, social; philosophical, intellectual; erotic, female, family and household; historical; adventurous, fantastic; satirical; sentimental, etc.

According to structural features: a novel in verse, a travel novel, a pamphlet novel, a parable novel, a feuilleton novel, etc.

Often the definition correlates the novel with the era in which one or another type of novel dominated: antique, chivalric, enlightenment, Victorian, Gothic, modernist, etc.

In addition, an epic novel stands out - a work in the center of artistic attention of which is the fate of the people, and not individual person(L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace", M.A. Sholokhov "Quiet Don").

A special type is the polyphonic novel (according to M. M. Bakhtin), which involves such a construction, when the main idea of ​​the work is formed by the simultaneous sound of "many voices", since none of the characters, nor the author has a monopoly on the truth and is not its carrier.

Summing up all of the above, we note once again that despite the long history of this term and an even older genre form, in modern literary criticism there is no unambiguous view of the problems associated with the concept of "novel". It is known that it appeared in the Middle Ages, the first samples of novels - more than five centuries ago, in the history of the development of Western European literatures, the novel had many forms and modifications.

Finishing the conversation about the novel as a whole, we cannot but pay attention to the fact that, like any genre, it must have some features. Here we remain in solidarity with the adherent of "dialogism" in literature - M.M. Bakhtin, who identifies three main features of the genre model of the novel that fundamentally distinguish it from other genres:

“1) the stylistic three-dimensionality of the novel, associated with the multilingual consciousness that is realized in it; 2) a radical change in the temporal coordinates of the literary image in the novel; 3) new zone building a literary image in the novel, namely the zone of maximum contact with the present (modernity) in its incompleteness.

DEFINITIONutopias

Utopia is an idea of ​​an ideal society, an uncritical confidence in the possibility of direct implementation of traditional, mythological, possibly modernized, ideological expectations, ideals. For example, U. are striving to realize the ideals of building a large society by analogy with the rural community, the concept of socialism, the implementation of which cannot take place in the corresponding period of time, or due to the complete impossibility of accepting the relevant ideas by the general population as real values ​​of their own activities, or as a result of the fact that the adoption of these values ​​leads to a non-functional system, violate the prohibitions of sociocultural law. W. Mora, Campanella, etc. give pictures to the limit of tightly regulated societies, industries, personal life in cities, at home. They represent modernized traditional ideals that do not correspond either to the past due to the elements of modernization, or to the future due to the burden of traditionalism. U. is an element of a certain stage in the development of any decision, since everything begins with the reproduction of some pre-existing need, which may turn out to be U. in a changed situation. The effectiveness of a decision depends on a person’s ability to critically rethink all its prerequisites, elements on the basis of changed conditions, the emergence of new means, the maturation of new goals, i.e., it is necessary to overcome element U in the solution. Any ideas, projects, their implementation must pass the test for the presumption of utopia . An attempt to realize U., that is, first of all, to embody it in social relations, to get a result from it, can be regarded as the result of a miracle of inversion, in the case of realization, it is replaced by a reverse inversion. For example, socialism as a society that immediately saves people from death, from labor, embodies universal equality, ends in the end with an increase in an uncomfortable state, a reverse inversion. The boy's death means that there is no communism in "Chevengur" (Platonov A., Chevengur).

The term "miniature" first appeared in Russia in 1925. Due to the small form, grace and thoroughness of execution, many works began to be called miniatures.

Encyclopedic YouTube

Types of miniatures

Short stories, concise in volume, but extremely capacious in content, are called literary miniatures. Often in miniatures there is practically no action, but there is only a sketch, a picture. But, using the capacity of images, comparisons, epithets, the author creates a whole human destiny with a few phrases. The miniature genre began to develop a long time ago, but its clear boundaries have not yet been identified. A miniature is understood as a novella, essay, story or short story that is highly "compressed". The term, in essence, is still conditional. Miniatures in prose are often called "pictures", "sketches". The miniature can be lyrical (poetic). In dramaturgy, a miniature was called a monodrama and a one-act or multi-act play, the presentation of which occupied only part of the theatrical evening.

Specific features

Having no clear boundaries, the miniature gives free rein to the authors, and this is one of its main differences from other small prose genres, and also allows you to address various aspects of life and put everyday, social, philosophical issues in the center. The small volume of the work (5-10 pages) helps to avoid repetition, while the idea is clearly visible: the miniature is characterized by a clear transmission of any author's intention. The moment recorded by the author in miniature most corresponds to the veracity of the image of being, art material is presented subjectively, and the author is most often the narrator.

How specific signs miniatures stand out: small text size; obligatory presence of the plot beginning; clear author's meaning; subjectivism; clear and bright dynamics; clearly defined task; in the basis are equally allowed and global problem And private question; the organization of the text necessarily includes completeness and proportionality; symbolism and allegorism are allowed; the miniature is one in its nature and indivisible; its form is graceful, rhythmic and melodic (desirable); lyric and epic interact in miniature.

Yu.B. Orlitsky characterizes the miniature as a genre with a pronounced rhythmic organization.

In the works of the miniature genre, a clearly expressed subjective principle is seen in everything. In most miniatures, it is the subject, i.e. a concrete personality is the center around which all actions take place and the composition develops, subjective perception, a certain experience is realized in them.

However, there are miniatures with a clearly defined plot, in which the mood that imbues the work carries weighty significance. They often use a “hidden plot”, when external intrigue recedes into the background and change takes on a dominant role. psychological state hero, his moral self-knowledge.

The miniature is distinguished by conciseness, clarity and sharpness of the plot, especially semantic load, which is embedded in some words and details.

The internal monologue can freely exist in miniatures simultaneously with the figurative-logical series. At the same time, philosophical and ethical problems can also arouse the author’s interest, which, despite their small volume, can be revealed in the miniature genre, while the works have a high degree of artistry.

Subjectivism, on the other hand, distinguishes a miniature from a simple essay, although some miniatures are written in an essayistic form, however, the essay genre implies somewhat greater rigor and logic in reasoning and argumentation, and a fairly extended chain of conclusions.

Such a detailed and somewhat contradictory definition of the genre is explained by the fact that the miniature allows the authors to experiment and express their self. The absence of a rigid framework, established canons is the main difference between the miniature and other small prose genres.

The genre began to actively develop in the 90s of the twentieth century. Yu. Orlitsky notes the following features of modern prose miniatures: a miniature can be narrative, lyrical, dramatic, essayistic, philosophical, and humorous, and not just lyrical, as it was before, and these qualities can form a kind of synthesis. In modern Russian literature, this is most often the “prose of the poet”, this is evidenced by the rejection of titles (as in lyrics) and the publication of miniatures as part of books of poetry and magazine collections of poems. The stanza of the miniature was consistently changing - the attraction to one equal sentence.

Thus, in the process of its development, the miniature genre actively interacted with other small genres (with a story, a short story, with an essay), as a result of which the genre varieties named above appeared, so it is sometimes difficult to distinguish where the miniature itself is, and where short story, novel or essay.

The miniature genre is still being formed, therefore it is not recognized by many researchers as canonical.

The emergence of the genre in Russia

It is believed that in Russia for the first time this genre was presented by Turgenev ("Poems in Prose"). But similar analogies can be found in Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, Teplyakov, Somov, Glinka, who revealed in his works in 1826 25 prose miniatures for the first time in Russia ("Experiments of allegories, or allegorical descriptions, in verse and prose").

At the turn of the century and during silver age in literature, the genre was especially popular, but in Soviet time was in the shadows. Interest in it began to return only in the 70s of the twentieth century.

Authors

IN late XIX- at the beginning of the 20th century, Bunin, Sluchevsky and Turgenev created their works in the miniature genre.

In general, at the beginning of the 20th century, not a single magazine could do without prose miniatures, they were written by many authors, for example, Solovyova,

Opera originated in Italy. She "grew" out of theatrical mysteries - spiritual performances in which she served as a background, emphasizing the play of actors. In such performances, music sounded from time to time, emphasizing important dramatic moments. Subsequently, she became more and more important in such mysteries. From some point throughout the performance, the music sounded without any pauses. The first prototype of the opera is considered to be a comedy on a spiritual theme called "The Conversion of St. Paul", which Beverini. In this comedy, music plays from the very beginning to the end, but still plays the role of accompaniment.

In the sixteenth century, pastorals came into vogue, they included choral performances of motets or madrigals (musical and poetic pieces). At the end of the sixteenth century, solo vocal numbers appeared in pastorals. This was the beginning of the birth of opera in the usual modern man form. This genre was called drama in musica, and "opera" appeared only in the first half of the seventeenth century. It should be noted that a number of continued to call their works musical dramas even after the appearance and consolidation of "opera".

There are several types of opera. The main one is considered to be the "Big Opera" or lyrical tragedy. It arose after the Great French Revolution and actually became the main musical direction nineteenth century.

History of opera houses

The first opera house opened in 1637 in Venice. The opera served to entertain aristocrats and was not accessible to ordinary people. The first major opera is Jacopo Peri's Daphne, which was first performed in 1597.

Opera is very popular, becoming a favorite form of art. Literary plots operas make them accessible and understandable musical art, since it is much easier to perceive than traditional ones without a plot.

Today, about twenty thousand opera performances are given a year. This means that more than fifty operas are performed every day in the world.

From Italy, the opera quickly spread to other European countries. Over the years, it has become public, ceasing to serve exclusively as entertainment for aristocrats. IN opera houses“galleys” began to appear, from which ordinary citizens could delightfully sing.

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Few people know that the traditional and beloved by thousands of people salad "herring under a fur coat" has a political connotation. This dish was invented back in 1918, which, as you know, was a turning point for Russia. If you believe folk legend, "fur coat" is not the name of the type of clothing, but an abbreviation.

Brilliant invention of an ordinary chef

Since the middle of the 19th century, taverns have been a favorite vacation spot for citizens. Here they drank, swore, talked and by all means searched for the truth. Often visitors broke dishes, started fights, accused each other of bearing revolutionary ideas and they sang the Internationale in a discordant chorus. One day, Anastas Bogomilov, a merchant, owner of several highly frequented eateries, decided that it was necessary to calm the visitors and make the atmosphere in his establishments more relaxed. It happened in 1918. One of Anastas' employees, the cook Aristarkh Prokoptsev, decided that the easiest way to calm down the rebels was to saturate their stomach. But not just like that, but with a hidden connotation.

According to legend, it was Prokoptsev who came up with the idea of ​​​​creating the herring dish. Herring was a symbol of the proletariat (a widespread, affordable and popular product among the people), vegetables (potatoes, onions and carrots) personified the peasantry, and beets represented the red revolutionary banner. The popular French cold sauce "mayonnaise" was the binder. Why he was chosen is not exactly known. According to one version, it was a sign of respect for those who made the Great French bourgeois revolution, according to another - a reminder of the Entente.

The Entente, which included France, was considered the main external enemy of Bolshevism.

Why a fur coat? SHUBA is an abbreviation, which was deciphered as follows: "Chauvinism and Decline - Boycott and Anathema."
Restaurant goers quickly appreciated the revolutionary salad. First, it was delicious. Secondly, inexpensive. And thirdly, it was an excellent snack for spirits. Because of a large number mayonnaise, people got drunk less, which means there were fewer fights. For the first time, salad appeared on the menu of Bogomilov's taverns before the new year 1919. Maybe that's why "herring under a fur coat" has become a traditional dish for the New Year's table.

The history of the emergence of lettuce is beautiful. How true it is, no one will ever know.

classic salad recipe

For cooking traditional salad“Herring under a fur coat” will require boiled vegetables (except onions), a fresh apple, herring and mayonnaise.

It is desirable that the mayonnaise be homemade. If you have to use the store, then it is better to take the one where the percentage of fat content is higher.

You will need:
- 200 g herring fillet;
- 200 g of apples;
- 200 g of beets;
- 200 g of boiled potatoes;
- 200 g;
- 100 g of onion;
- mayonnaise.

After the vegetables are cooked, they need to be cooled, peeled and grated one by one on a coarse grater. The onion is cut as finely as possible. Herring fillet should be cut into medium-sized cubes: no more than 1x1 cm. The apple needs to be peeled and grated on a fine grater. It is better to spread the dish on a flat salad bowl. The first layer in classic recipe comes potatoes, then herring, onions, carrots, apples and beets. Each layer is smeared with fat mayonnaise.

The classic is known to many, but every housewife still makes herring under a fur coat in her own way. Some put a cucumber instead of an apple, others exclude onions from the ingredients, and still others use one of the layers of cheese. Some chefs strive to "ennoble" the dish and put salmon, salmon and even seafood like shrimp instead of herring. Housewives are also happy to experiment. You can find many on the internet original recipes based on the classic: “Herring in a sheepskin coat”, “Fur coat without herring”, “Herring in a new fur coat”, “Herring in a raincoat”.

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How to cook salad "Herring under a fur coat"

Matryoshka dolls are considered a primordially Russian souvenir and therefore are so popular among tourists coming to the Russian Federation from different countries. All the more interesting is the fact that these wooden painted figurines of elegant beauties, investing in each other, have far from Russian roots.

The first Russian matryoshka

The prototype of a cheerful, round-faced Russian girl, embodied in classic nesting dolls, was brought to Russia from Japan at the beginning of the 19th century. The souvenir from the land of the sun was a wooden nesting figurine of the Japanese sage Fukurum. They were beautifully painted and stylized in the spirit of the traditions of the mother country of the modern matryoshka.

Once in the Moscow Toy Workshop, a Japanese souvenir inspired local turner Vasily Zvezdochkin and artist Sergey Malyutin to create similar toys. The craftsmen machined and painted similar figurines nesting one inside the other. The first analogue of a Japanese souvenir was a girl in a headscarf and a sundress, subsequent nesting dolls depicted cute funny children - boys and girls, on the last, eighth nesting doll, a swaddled baby was drawn. Most likely, it got its name in honor of the widespread in that period of time female name Matryona.

Sergiev Posad nesting dolls

After the closure of the workshop in Moscow, in 1900, craftsmen in Sergiev Posad, in a training and demonstration workshop, took up the manufacture of matryoshkas. This type folk craft became widespread, not far from the capital there were workshops of the Bogoyavlenskys, Ivanovs, Vasily Zvezdochkin, who moved to Posad from Moscow.

Over time, this souvenir toy gained such popularity that foreigners began to order it from Russian masters: the French, Germans, etc. Such nesting dolls were not cheap, but there was something to admire! The painting of these wooden toys became colorful, ornate, varied. Artists depicted Russian beautiful girls in long sundresses and painted scarves, with bouquets of flowers, baskets and knots. At the beginning of the twentieth century, mass production of matryoshka dolls for foreign countries was established.

Later, masculine nesting dolls appeared, for example, depicting shepherdesses with a flute, mustachioed grooms, bearded old men with sticks, etc. Wooden toys were arranged according to a variety of principles, but the pattern, as a rule, was necessarily traced - for example, nesting dolls-grooms were paired with nesting dolls-brides and relatives.

Nesting dolls of the Nizhny Novgorod province

Closer to the middle of the 20th century, the matryoshka spread far beyond Sergiev Posad. So, in the Nizhny Novgorod province, masters appeared who made nesting dolls in the form of slender tall girls in bright half-shawls. And Sergiev Posad craftsmen made these toys in the form of more squat and lush young ladies.

Modern nesting dolls

Matryoshka is still considered one of the symbols of Russian culture. Modern nesting dolls are made in the most various genres: in addition to classical drawings, portraits of famous politicians, TV presenters, movie and pop stars.

In Sergiev Posad, in the Toy Museum, there are collections of nesting dolls various masters beginning and middle of the XX century, as well as the first matryoshka, painted famous artist Sergei Malyutin.

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