Periodization of the history of Russian literature in the first half of the 19th century. Conditions for the emergence of a new direction

Periodization problem literary process The 19th century is one of the most complex and controversial problems facing literary critics both in the past and at the present time.

The most stable is the chronological principle (A.N. Pypin, S.A. Vengerov, A. Veselovsky). The researchers supplemented the chronological principle by dividing the history of literature into decades: the romantic of the 20s, folklore of the 30s, romantic idealism of the 40s, positivism and practicality of the 50s-60s. The division of the literary process into decades was reinforced by typology artistic images- the development went from sentimental characters (poor Liza) to the romantic images of Zhukovsky, then to Chatsky and Onegin, the characters of Gogol's stories, to Rudin and Bazarov, etc.

From the beginning of the 19th century began to apply the personal principle in two versions. Periods literary development associated with the reigns, and it turned out: the literature of the time of Peter the Great, the literature of the time of Catherine, Alexander, Nikolaev. The second version of the personal principle is based on its dependence on creativity. outstanding poet or a writer, as if consolidating literary movement and opening the most attractive ways for the development of artistic creativity. Even V. G. Belinsky singled out the Lomonosov period, Karamzin, Pushkin; Between Karamzin's and Pushkin's, I.V. Kireevsky included another period of Zhukovsky, and Chernyshevsky added Gogol's period to Pushkin's. This is like a "romantic" principle of periodization.

At the beginning of the 19th century mixed principles of periodization were adopted: both the attitude of literature to reality, to spiritual life, as well as the attitude to the “holistic enlightenment of Europe”, and the position of the writer were taken into account. According to I.V. Kireevsky, the first period was marked by an appeal to the public, to the needs of Russian education, French influence prevailed, Karamzin was the leading figure. In the second, the appeal to the ideal foundations of life began to prevail, the "Germanic" element entered, the main spokesman of the period - Zhukovsky. Kireevsky associated the third period with the activities of Pushkin.

The researchers of the Pushkin House identified the main trends in literature as follows: from sentimentalism to the romantic (1800-1825), from romanticism to realism (1826-1850), the heyday of realism (1856-1881), transition period in the development of Russian realism (80s).

The development of literature is based on the socio-historical development of society, and therefore literary periodization is in deep connection with general historical periodization.

The chronological boundaries between the individual stages and periods in the development of literature are conditional. They do not replace each other in exact calendar terms. But this or that year acquires the character of a frontier era.

Position about Pushkin as an ancestor new literature has a place in literature. But it would be wrong to consider the line between the literature of the 18th and 19th centuries. Pushkin's first speeches. He had immediate predecessors: Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Krylov. They paved the way for the formation of a great poet. The significance of Zhukovsky, Batyushkov and Krylov as Pushkin's closest teachers forces us to move the literary line between the 18th and 19th centuries to the beginning of the work of the three named poets, i.e. chronologically - to the first years of the new century.

So, the 1st period of Russian literature of the 19th century. covers 1801-1815 In 1801 no works of art capable of marking the beginning of a new literary period appeared. Zhukovsky and Batyushkov appear in print with romantic poems in the second half of the first decade. But some of the events of 1801 may be regarded as the expression of new tendencies in literature. In 1801, on the initiative of young writers, two literary societies arose, the organization of which testified to the desire to join forces in these searches. Friendly Literary Society (Moscow) and the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts (Petersburg) => the birth in literature of those ideas and principles that, in the further development, were to lead to romanticism. The literary life of this period is characterized by an increasingly aggravated struggle between the new and the old. In the first years of the new century, sentimentalism occupies a dominant position in literature. And the classicists are trying to defend the old literary positions. At the same time, the traditions of civic poetry continue to develop in the work of enlightenment poets. The process of formation of Russian realism does not stop. The most significant phenomenon of this period is the emergence of Russian romanticism as a new literary direction, the beginning of which Belinsky rightly associates with the name of Zhukovsky. Early Russian romanticism, which found expression in the work of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov, is the main achievement of the first period of Russian literature of the 19th century.

The 2nd period covers 1815-1816. During this period, in Russian literature, on the basis of noble revolutionary spirit, a new revolutionary-romantic trend was taking shape, reaching its highest rise in the first half of the 1920s in the work of Pushkin and the Decembrist poets. The romanticism of Zhukovsky and his followers continues to exist. The work of Griboyedov on the comedy Woe from Wit and Pushkin on the first chapters of Eugene Onegin and Boris Godunov completes the formation of a realistic artistic method. Therefore, 1825 becomes a turning point for Russian literature: the dominance of the romantic trend ends, Russian realism triumphs its first victories.

3rd period 1825-1842 - the establishment of realism, the formation of a realistic direction. But even after that, romantic currents continue to exist. The most characteristic and significant for this period were realistic works Pushkin, novels and comedies by Gogol, "A Hero of Our Time" by Lermontov. The appearance in 1842 of the first volume " dead souls This period is ending.

Such is the general course of the Russian literary process in the first half of the 19th century. Beginning with romanticism, this process is further characterized by a gradual transition to realism and ends with the establishment of a realistic trend in Russian literature.

Question 2

19th century is called "Golden Age" Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. At the beginning of the century, art was finally separated from court poetry and "album" poems, in the history of Russian literature for the first time the features of a professional poet appeared, the lyrics became more natural, simpler, more humane.

The 19th century began with a flourish sentimentalism and becoming romanticism . These literary trends found expression primarily in POETRY.

IN POETRY early 19th century still strong influence classicism . Bulky epic poems, fairy tale poems, and philosophical and cosmological poems continue to appear. A great literary event was the release of the collected works of the greatest poet of the 18th century. G.R. Derzhavin(1816). But in general, classicism is already leaving the literary scene. Many classicists are strongly influenced sentimentalism . The traditions of classicism were maintained and at the same time significantly updated.

The traditions of civil lyrics in the spirit of classicism were continued by poets "Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts". They are informally called "poets-radishchevtsy" because they shared ideas A.N. Radishcheva and his sons were in the company.

The ideas of high citizenship and folk literature were shared by a member "Friendly Literary Society" young Andrei Ivanovich Turgenev. The time of Karamzin, in his opinion, has passed, and therefore following him is now more harmful than useful. Using the ideas of citizenship, dreaming of zealous service to the fatherland, Andrey Turgenev intended to renew the civic lyrics and wrote several significant poems in high style. views Andrey Turgenev and his small poetic practice played a prominent role in preparing « literary program Decembrism", who most fully embodied the poetic ideas of civil, or social, romanticism. However, the views Andrey Turgenev did not receive majority support "Friendly Literary Society". The members of the society were mostly supporters Karamzin And sentimentalism .

The basis Karamzinism the same principles of classic aesthetics were laid down, which at one time were proclaimed bualo in his famous treatise "Poetic Art"- logical clarity, accuracy of word usage, syntactic correctness and transparency of thought expression. However, under the pen Karamzin and his followers, they were filled with new content. Logical clarity, accuracy of word usage, transparency of thought corresponded, considered Karamzinists, true enlightened taste. However, from the point of view of classicism, perfect artistic taste determined by the rules rational concepts about "good" and "bad". Karamzinists denied a rational understanding of taste. For them, taste is an integral property of a person, personality, and not abstract rules. Taste resides in the soul, not outside it.

Sentimentalism: Dominant " human nature» Sentimentalism declared feeling, not reason, which distinguished it from classicism. Sentimentalism believed that the ideal of human activity was not the "reasonable" reorganization of the world, but the release and improvement of "natural" feelings. His character is more individualized, his inner world enriched with the ability to empathize, sensitively respond to what is happening around. By origin and conviction, the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; the rich spiritual world of the common man is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.

Karamzin: Epoch sentimentalism in Russia opened the publication of Karamzin's "Letters of a Russian traveler" and the story " Poor Lisa ».

Karamzin is interested not external , physical world, A interior , the spiritual world of man. His poems speak "the language of the heart", not the mind. An object Karamzin's poetry is"simple life" , and to describe it he uses simple poetic forms - poor rhymes, avoids the abundance of metaphors and other tropes popular in the poems of his predecessors.

Another difference in poetics Karamzin is that the world is fundamentally unknowable for him, the poet recognizes the existence of different points of view on the same subject.

Karamzin's language reform: Prose and Karamzin's poetry had a decisive influence on the developmentRussian literary language . Karamzin deliberately refused to useChurch Slavonic vocabulary and grammar, bringing the language of their works to the everyday language of their era and using as a model grammar Andsyntax French . Karamzin introduced a lot of new words into the Russian language - likeneologisms (“charity”, “love”, “freethinking”, “attraction”, “first-class”, “human”), and barbarism ("sidewalk", "coachman").

Sentimentalism Karamzin had a great influence on the development of Russian literature: he repelled, among other things, romanticism Zhukovsky, creation Pushkin.

The new understanding of taste immediately led to a complete reassessment of classic aesthetics. Artwork must be "Nice" to a reading person, it should caress his ear and not allow turns and expressions that make it difficult for him to perceive. From this comes attention to the "smoothness" and "fluidity" of style and verse, to the natural flow and elegance of poetic speech. The language must be cleansed of obsolete phrases, Slavicisms and archaisms, which have historically become obsolete, since they have disappeared from oral communication, from the colloquial and everyday speech of an educated person.

Therefore, the basis poetic language must be put "medium style" which is used in real life ordinary nobleman. Thus, access to the poetic language to other stylistic layers - "high" And "folk" eloquence is limited. "High" eloquence is not allowed because of its artificial loftiness, "folk" eloquence - due to his rusticity And rudeness.

Because the "medium style" formed the basis for the reform of the poetic language, and its natural existence is the “middle” genres, then they were primarily in demand by the new sentimental poetry . But the "middle" genres were cultivated not only by sentimental and pre-romantic poetry, but also by "light" poetry, which traced its origins to salon aristocratic culture. It also distributed elegy, messages, madrigals, album poems, sharp, graceful epigrams and other forms. This literary repertoire already contained motifs, figurative and even lexical means, which the new Russian poetry so much needed.

From crossing "light" poetry and sentimental lyrics new qualitative phenomenon. All traditional poetic means, characteristic, for example, of the genre of elegy, are now being composed into a new whole, changing their meaning, the genre of elegy itself, and defining the entire literary and aesthetic system. This changed genre becomes dominant. This is how it is created elegy of romanticism . Other genre formations appear in the same similitude.

Romanticism: ideological and artistic direction in the culture of the end XVIIIcentury- first half XIXcentury. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, fantastic, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, the opposite of classicism And Enlightenment. Romanticism affirms a cult nature, feelings and natural in man. The image is in demand "noble savage", armed " folk wisdom and not spoiled by civilization.

IN Russian romanticism there is freedom from classical conventions, a ballad, romantic drama. A new idea of ​​the essence and meaning of poetry is affirmed, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry was an empty pastime, something completely serviceable, is no longer possible.

Poetry can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov. In the views of the progressive part of Russian society in the 30s. 19th century features appeared romantic outlook caused by dissatisfaction with modern reality. This worldview was distinguished by deep disappointment, rejection of reality, disbelief in the possibility of progress. On the other side, romantics there was a desire for lofty ideals, a desire for a complete resolution of the contradictions of being and an understanding of the impossibility of this (the gap between the ideal and reality).

Creation Lermontov most fully reflects romantic outlook , formed in the Nicholas era. In his poetry, the main conflict of romanticism is contradiction between ideal and reality- reaches extreme tension, which significantly distinguishes him from the romantic poets of the early 19th century. The main object of the lyrics Lermontov is the inner world of man - deep and contradictory. Key theme in creativity Lermontov - the theme of the tragic loneliness of the individual in a hostile and unjust world. The disclosure of this theme is subject to all the richness of poetic images, motives, artistic means, all the variety of thoughts, experiences, feelings of the lyrical hero.

Along with poetry began to develop PROSE. Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by English historical novels W. Scott whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with prose works A.S. Pushkin And N.V. Gogol.

From the middle of the 19th century, the formation Russian realistic literature , which is being created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that prevailed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. There is a need to create realistic literature sharply reacting to the socio-political situation in the country. Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The socio-political prevails philosophical problems. Literature has a special psychologism.

Guiding principles of realism 19th - 20th centuries: objective displaying the essential aspects of life in combination with the height of the author's ideal; reproduction of typical characters, conflicts, situations with the completeness of their artistic individualization (i.e., concretization of both national, historical, social signs, as well as physical, intellectual and spiritual features); preference in ways of depicting "forms of life itself", but along with the use, especially in the 20th century, of conditional forms (myth, symbol, parable, grotesque); prevailing interest to the problem of "personality and society".

critical realism - artistic method and the literary trend that has developed inXIX century . Its main feature is the depiction of the human character in organic connection with social circumstances, along with a deep social analysis of the inner world of a person.

A.S. Pushkin And N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that will be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This artistic type « extra person» , whose model is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type " little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".

Literature inherited from the 18th century its publicity And satirical character. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of the entire Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century.

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19th century gave birth a large number of Russian talented prose writers and poets. Their works quickly broke into and took their rightful place in it. The work of many authors around the world was influenced by them. general characteristics Russian literature of the 19th century became the subject of a separate section in literary criticism. Undoubtedly, events in political and social life served as prerequisites for such a rapid cultural take-off.

Story

The main trends in art and literature are formed under the influence of historical events. If in the 18th century public life in Russia was relatively measured, the next century included many important twists and turns that affected not only further development society and politics, but also on the formation of new trends and trends in literature.

The striking historical milestones of this period were the war with Turkey, the invasion of the Napoleonic army, the execution of oppositionists, the abolition of serfdom and many other events. All of them are reflected in art and culture. A general description of Russian literature of the 19th century cannot do without mentioning the creation of new stylistic norms. The genius of the art of the word was A. S. Pushkin. This great century begins with his work.

Literary language

The main merit of the brilliant Russian poet was the creation of new poetic forms, stylistic devices and unique, previously unused plots. Pushkin managed to achieve this thanks to comprehensive development and excellent education. Once he set himself the goal of achieving all the heights in education. And he reached it by his thirty-seven years. Pushkin's heroes became atypical and new for that time. The image of Tatyana Larina combines beauty, intelligence and features of the Russian soul. This literary type had no analogues in our literature before.

Answering the question: “What is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century?”, A person who has at least basic philological knowledge will remember such names as Pushkin, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. But it was the author of "Eugene Onegin" who made a revolution in Russian literature.

Romanticism

This concept originates from the Western medieval epic. But to XIX century it has acquired new shades. Having originated in Germany, romanticism also penetrated the work of Russian authors. In prose, this direction is characterized by the desire for mystical motives and folk legends. In poetry, there is a desire to transform life for the better and chanting folk heroes. opposition and their tragic end became fertile ground for poetry.

The general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century is marked by romantic moods in the lyrics, which were quite common in the poems of Pushkin and other poets of his galaxy.

As for prose, new forms of the story appeared here, among which important place takes fantasy genre. Vivid examples romantic prose - early works Nikolai Gogol.

Sentimentalism

With the development of this direction, Russian literature of the 19th century begins. General prose is sensibility and emphasis on the perception of the reader. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russian literature at the end of the 18th century. Karamzin became the founder of the Russian tradition in this genre. In the 19th century, he had a number of followers.

satirical prose

It was at this time that satirical and journalistic works. This trend can be traced primarily in the work of Gogol. Start your creative journey with a description small homeland, this author later moved to the all-Russian social topics. It is difficult to imagine today what Russian literature of the 19th century would be without this master of satire. The general characteristic of his prose in this genre is not only critical eye to the stupidity and parasitism of the landowners. The satirist writer "walked" through almost all sectors of society.

masterpiece satirical prose was the novel "Lord Golovlev", dedicated to the theme of the poor spiritual world of the landowners. Subsequently, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, like the books of many other satirical writers, became the starting point for the emergence

realistic novel

In the second half of the century, the development realistic prose. romantic ideals turned out to be untenable. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a thing as Russian literature of the 19th century. The general characteristic is briefly a list important features this period and the prerequisites for the emergence of certain phenomena. As for the realistic prose of Dostoevsky, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author were a reaction to the moods that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting in his works the prototypes of people he knew, he sought to consider and solve the most pressing issues of the society in which he moved.

In the first decades, Mikhail Kutuzov was glorified in the country, then the romantic Decembrists. This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. A general description of the end of the century fits in a couple of words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the whole people that came to the fore, but of its individual representatives. Hence the appearance in prose of the image of the “superfluous person”.

folk poem

In the years when realistic novel occupied a dominant position, poetry faded into the background. A general description of the development of Russian literature in the 19th century allows us to trace long haul from dreamy poetry to true romance. In this atmosphere, Nekrasov creates his brilliant work. But his work can hardly be attributed to one of the leading genres of the mentioned period. The author combined several genres in his poem: peasant, heroic, revolutionary.

End of the century

At the end of the 19th century, one of the most read authors became Chekhov. Despite the fact that at the beginning of his career, critics accused the writer of coldness to current social topics, his works received an undeniable public acceptance. Continuing to develop the image of the "little man" created by Pushkin, Chekhov studied the Russian soul. Various philosophical and political ideas that were developed at the end of the 19th century could not but affect the lives of individuals.

Revolutionary sentiments prevailed in late 19th-century literature. Among the authors whose work was at the turn of the century, one of the most bright personalities became Maxim Gorky.

The general characterization of the 19th century deserves more close attention. Every major representative this period created his art world, whose heroes dreamed of the unrealizable, struggled with social evil or experienced their own little tragedy. AND the main task their authors was to reflect the realities of the century, rich in social and political events.

Independent work No. 1

Subject: Historical - cultural process and periodization of Russian literature of the 19th century.

Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century. The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. At the beginning of the century, art was finally separated from court poetry and "album" poems, in the history of Russian literature for the first time the features of a professional poet appeared, the lyrics became more natural, simpler, more humane. This century gave us such masters. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language. The 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Sentimentalism: Sentimentalism declared feeling, not reason, to be the dominant feature of "human nature", which distinguished it from classicism. Sentimentalism believed that the ideal of human activity was not the "reasonable" reorganization of the world, but the release and improvement of "natural" feelings. His hero is more individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize, sensitively respond to what is happening around. By origin and conviction, the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; the rich spiritual world of the common man is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism. Romanticism: ideological and artistic direction in the culture of the end of the 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, fantastic, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment. Romanticism affirms the cult of nature, feelings and the natural in man. The image of the “noble savage”, armed with “folk wisdom” and not spoiled by civilization, is in demand. Along with poetry began to develop prose. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which is being created against the backdrop of a tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis in the serf system is brewing, contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism. Realism in art, 1) the truth of life, embodied by the specific means of art. 2) The historically concrete form of the artistic consciousness of the new time, which originates either from the Renaissance ("Renaissance realism"), or from the Enlightenment ("Enlightenment realism"), or from the 30s. 19th century ("proper realism"). The leading principles of realism in the 19th - 20th centuries: an objective reflection of the essential aspects of life in combination with the height of the author's ideal; reproduction of typical characters, conflicts, situations with the completeness of their artistic individualization (i.e. specification of both national, historical, social signs, and physical, intellectual and spiritual features

^ critical realism- an artistic method and literary direction that developed in the 19th century. Its main feature is the depiction of the human character in organic connection with social circumstances, along with a deep social analysis of the inner world of a person.

Independent work No. 2

Subject: Romanticism is the leading trend in Russian literature in the first half of the 19th century.

Romanticism(- a phenomenon of European culture in the 18th-19th centuries, which is a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; the ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual , depicting strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. various areas human activities. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, fantastic, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment.

Romanticism replaces the Age of Enlightenment and coincides with the industrial revolution, marked by the appearance of the steam engine, the steam locomotive, the steamboat, photography, and factory outskirts. If the Enlightenment is characterized by the cult of reason and civilization based on its principles, then romanticism affirms the cult of nature, feelings and the natural in man. It was in the era of romanticism that the phenomena of tourism, mountaineering and picnics were formed, designed to restore the unity of man and nature. The image of the “noble savage”, armed with “folk wisdom” and not spoiled by civilization, is in demand. That is, the romanticists wanted to show an unusual person in unusual circumstances. In a word, the romanticists opposed progressive civilization.

It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russian poetic works of the 1790-1800s are often attributed to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad, a romantic drama, is created. A new idea of ​​the essence and meaning of poetry is affirmed, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry was an empty pastime, something completely serviceable, is no longer possible.

The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, the “Russian Byron”, can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and the overcoming of romanticism in Russia.

The first decades of the 19th century passed under the sign of romanticism. Zhukovsky is popular, the genius of Pushkin flourishes, Lermontov declares himself, Gogol's creative path begins, and the critic Belinsky actively participates in the development of Russian literature. Literature is increasingly becoming an integral part of the spiritual life of society.

Youth, students create associations that have a socio-political orientation. Thus, at Moscow University, in the circle of N. V. Stankevich, V. G. Belinsky, M. A. Bakunin, K. S. Aksakov take part; in the circle of A. I. Herzen - N. P. Ogarev. As Herzen argued, "Russia of the future" existed precisely among these "boys who had just emerged from childhood" - they had "the heritage of universal science and purely folk Rus'."

Autocratic power proclaims the ideological formula of Russian society: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationalism. It was voiced in 1833 in the circular of the Minister of Public Education, Count S. S. Uvarov, where it was said that “public education should be carried out in the united spirit of Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality.”

For Russian literature XIX century realism can be considered the leading direction. In the literature of different countries, it arose in parallel with the successes exact sciences. The position of a realist writer is close to the position of a scientist, since they consider the world around them as a subject of study, observation, research.

Romanticism gravitated towards depicting an extraordinary personality, unusual plots, spectacular contrasts and vivid forms of expression. Realism strives to depict the everyday existence of ordinary people, to reproduce the real course of life. “To accurately and strongly reproduce the truth, the reality of life, is the greatest happiness for a writer, even if this truth does not coincide with his own sympathies,” I. S. Typgenev argued.

Independent work No. 3

Subject: The main themes and motives in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin.

Reading the lyrics of A. S. Pushkin, the great Russian writer N. V. Gogol asked himself the question: “What became the subject of A. S. Pushkin's poetry? : And he himself answered: "Everything has become an object." In his work, the poet turned to the themes of love and friendship, he was worried about the problems of freedom and the appointment of the poet. All the lyrics of A. S. Pushkin can be imagined as an endless novel in verse, the main subject of which is the inner world of the lyrical hero with his feelings, experiences and aspirations, whether it is a rush of passion, a premonition of love or disappointment in the ideal. One of the most important in the poet's work for me was the theme of love, which develops, like all the motives of his lyrics. In his youth, the lyrical hero of A. S. Pushkin sees joy and great universal value in love: ... Flow, streams of love, flow full of you. In the darkness, your eyes shine before me, They smile at me - and I hear the sounds: My friend, my tender friend ... I love ... yours ... yours! .. But gradually, with the maturation of the lyrical hero, the theme of love is rethought, and now for A. S. Pushkin become more important than feelings and the experiences of a beloved woman: But you tore your lips from the bitter kiss; From the land of gloomy exile You called me to another land. Lyrical hero Pushkin is able to appreciate any feeling and enjoy even the sadness of love: On the hills of Georgia lies the darkness of the night; Noisy Aragva before me. I'm sad and easy; my sadness is light; My sorrow is full of you...

Also in the work of A. S. Pushkin, one can see another understanding of freedom: the romantic perception of liberty. One of my favorite poems is the work "To the Sea", in which the principle of romantic duality is manifested. The lyrical hero thinks of himself as an extraordinary person, he cannot find anything equal to himself in society and therefore turns to the world of nature, to the elements: The limit of my soul is desirable! How often I wandered along your shores, quiet and foggy, I languish with a cherished intent! The pinnacle of the theme of freedom is the poem (From Pindemonti), which is a hymn to personal freedom. Especially close to me are the lines dedicated to the chanting of the honor and dignity of a person: Depend on the king, depend on the people - Is it all the same to us? God is with them. Give no one an Account, only oneself Serve and please, for power, for livery Do not bend either conscience, or thoughts, or neck ... Since Pushkin in his work turned to the themes of the poet and poetry, time and eternity, we must not forget about philosophical lyrics of the poet. The young lyric poet perceived death very tragically, but he realized that life does not stop, since A. S. Pushkin thought of himself as a very important link in the chain of generations, he manages to overcome the tragedy of death: Hello, young, unfamiliar tribe! not I Will see your mighty late age, When you outgrow my acquaintances And shield their old head From the eyes of a passerby. But let my grandson Hear your welcoming noise, when, Returning from a friendly conversation, Full of merry and pleasant thoughts, He will pass by you in the darkness of the night, And remember me. The problem of time and eternity, in my opinion, is one of the main problems in the philosophical lyrics of A. S. Pushkin.

The problem of time and eternity, in my opinion, is one of the main problems in the philosophical lyrics of A. S. Pushkin. The lyrical hero realizes that a person lives within the framework of time, and nature is eternal, and therefore it is indifferent to the tragedy of man: And let young life play at the coffin entrance, And indifferent nature Shine with eternal beauty.

At the end life path A. S. Pushkin returns to the theme of the poet and poetry in the poem "Monument", where the lyrics are concerned with the theme of poetic immortality. In this work, political freedom and the freedom of the creative person merge. The main meaning is contained in the lines: No, all of me will not die - the soul in the cherished lyre My ashes will survive and run away from decay - And I will be glorious, as long as at least one piit is alive in the sublunar world. The belief that the works will remain in the hearts and souls of generations fills the life of the poet with meaning and significance not only for A. S. Pushkin, but also for admirers of his talent. The older I get, the more the works of the great Russian lyricist acquire new and new meaning for me. Each time, re-reading familiar works from childhood, I discover a new Pushkin, because throughout his life the poet followed His moral ideals, which are so close to me.

Independent work No. 4

Subject: The main motives of the lyrics of M.O. Lermontov.

“Like any real, and even more so great poet, Lermontov confessed his poetry, and leafing through the volumes of his works, we can read the history of his soul and understand him as a poet and a person,” wrote Irakli Andronikov. Lermontov's talent flourished at a time when the revolution of the nobility was crushed, and new generations of fighters were still being formed. Therefore, the motives of bitterness, longing and loneliness occupy a considerable place in his work. Faith in the people, in their mighty forces, helped him in many ways to overcome these moods. Lermontov is a national poet. We are captivated by the beauty and humanity of Lermontov's poems. We hear in his poetry a stormy protest against "gloomy reality", a proud call for freedom and justice. The themes of Lermontov's lyrics are varied. Many of his works are a bitter thought about the fate of the younger generation of his era. One of the leading themes of Lermontov's poetry is the theme of hatred for autocracy. It illuminates the entire creative path of the poet. The heroic beginning of his struggle against the autocracy and the "light" was the poem "The Death of a Poet", written with heartache and anger. Lermontov castigates the "envious and stifling light", the "executioners of Freedom", the "greedy crowd" standing at the throne. He contrasts them with Pushkin, who rebelled against the "opinions of the world", whose death calls for vengeance. It was she who announced to Russia the emergence of a new poet, the successor to the great Pushkin. In Russia in the 1930s, Lermontov was one of the few poets who openly challenged ruling society. A vivid example of this is the poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd ...”. Forced to live among the secular mob, the poet deeply despises the intrigue, lies, emptiness and soullessness of these people. The poem ends with a challenge to the “light”: Oh, how I want to embarrass their gaiety, And boldly throw an iron verse in their eyes, Drenched in bitterness and anger! Even the best representatives of the youth of that time did not know how and where to apply their strength. In the end, many of them became indifferent to everything, became "superfluous people." The poem "Duma" is a civil judgment over one's generation. The author shows his passivity and emptiness of life in an era when the struggle is necessary. A large place in Lermontov's lyrics is occupied by the theme of the motherland (“Motherland”, “Borodino”). Lermontov opposes his “strange” love for the fatherland to the false patriotism of the ruling classes. In no other work did he achieve such poetic clarity as in the poem "Motherland". Broad lines, like the expanse of the steppe, accompany the poet's thoughts when his gaze turns to the Russian nature dear to his heart. At the sight of the occasional contentment and simple fun of the hardworking peasants, the poet is seized by a feeling of joy, incomprehensible to the “patriots” from the nobility, who cannot look “with joy, unfamiliar to many ...”. Lermontov road native nature, but even more expensive is a simple Russian person. Belinsky called this poem "Pushkin's best" thing, referring to Pushkin's optimism, faith in life and the people, which Lermontov inherited. But now the dagger has turned into a “golden toy”, inglorious and harmless. Previously, the voice of the poet called for a fight: “It used to be that the measured sound of your mighty words / Inflamed a fighter for battle ...” But now Lermontov does not see such a singer among his contemporaries. The poem ends with an appeal: Will you wake up again, mocked prophet? Or never at the voice of vengeance From the golden scabbard will you pull out your blade, Covered with rust of contempt?.. Years of reaction lay like a heavy burden on the shoulders of advanced people. Deep sadness and anxiety sound in many of Lermontov's poems: “I go out alone on the road ...”, “An oak leaf came off a dear branch ...”, “Clouds”, “Cliff”. In the poem “And boring and sad,” the poet writes: And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to In a moment of spiritual hardship ... Desire! best years! The poet is tired of following his “flinty path”. Nature, sounding in each of his poems, calls to rest (“The earth sleeps in the radiance of blue ...”). The sad tone of Lermontov's poems never turned into despair. The poet never resigned himself to fate. The rebellious spirit of poetry, its lyricism, depth of thought, amazing musicality and perfection of poetry put Lermontov among the greatest poets.

Independent work No. 5

Subject: The value of N.V. Gogol in Russian literature.

The merciless truth spoken by Gogol about contemporary society, the ardent love for the people, the artistic perfection of his works - all this determined the role that the great writer played in the history of Russian and world literature, in establishing the principles of critical realism, in the development of democratic public consciousness.

Relying on the creative achievements of his glorious predecessors (Fonvizin, Griboyedov, Krylov, Pushkin), Gogol blazed new trails in literature, continuing and developing its wonderful traditions: connection with life, nationality, humanism. In science recent years Increasingly, there are doubts about the validity of the judgments of the outstanding literary critic M. M. Bakhtin that Gogol’s laughter is “purely folk-festive laughter”, which has nothing to do with satire. Meanwhile, most of Gogol's works, as D. P. Nikolaev showed in a special study, are to some extent imbued with satirical pathos. Gogol acutely felt the unnaturalness of all the then existing social and social forms of life, their anti-humanistic essence.

This critical direction grew in Gogol from a belief in the unlimited spiritual possibilities of the individual, from the idea of ​​moral values ​​embedded in the people's consciousness, ideals, from the height of which the satirist opposed everything that disfigured and distorted the human personality. The concept of the ideal also existed in romantic literature. But there the ideal was often perceived as an unattainable dream opposed to reality.

For Gogol, the ideal is not divorced from reality, it is perceived by the writer as a norm of life that existed in the past (“Taras Bulba”) and, therefore, is possible and achievable in the present.

This is where the power of satirical denial comes from, organically connected with a passionate desire to achieve the public good as soon as possible by means of fiction, to affirm the high purpose of a person, to help him get rid of everything that can lead to moral death.

Harsh and wise lessons Gogol, so important and necessary for us today, these are lessons of love for the Motherland, respect and admiration for its history, nature, people, this is a warning about the formidable danger that the loss of moral criteria brings with it, the lack of spirituality that always accompanies acquirers, predators, people , absorbed in the pursuit of rank or wealth, alien to high spiritual interests.

Gogol's immortal work enriched the principles of artistic representation of reality, revealed the inexhaustible possibilities of using the grotesque, fantasy, and symbolism in realistic literature. “Gogol's range was unlimited,” wrote M. T. Rylsky.

Not only laughter, but also the terrible fantasy of "Terrible Revenge" and "Evenings on the Eve of Ivan Kupala", and the heroic pathos, patriotic solemnity of "Taras Bulba", and the poetic melodiousness of "May Night", and the deep emotion of "Portrait", and the grotesqueness of "The Nose "- one of the most fantastic and most realistic works of world literature, and boundless pity for the poor man, which manifested itself so strongly in The Overcoat and found its continuation in the early (and not only early) works of Dostoevsky, and in the works of Turgenev, Leskov , Gleb Uspensky, Garshin, Chekhov.

Independent work No. 6

Subject: Socio-cultural novelty of Ostrovsky's dramaturgy.

Dramaturgy is a genre that involves the active interaction of the writer and the reader in considering the social issues raised by the author. A. N. Ostrovsky believed that dramaturgy has a strong impact on society, the text is part of the performance, but the play does not live without staging. Hundreds and thousands will view it, and much less will read it. Nationality is the main feature of the drama of the 1860s: heroes from the people, a description of the life of the lower strata of the population, the search for a positive national character. Drama has always had the ability to respond to topical issues. Creativity Ostrovsky was at the center of the dramaturgy of this time, Yu. M. Lotman calls his plays the pinnacle of Russian drama. The creator of "," Russian national theater”Called Ostrovsky I. A. Goncharov, and N. A. Dobrolyubov called his dramas “plays of life”, since in his plays the private life of the people is formed into a picture of modern society. In the first big comedy "Our People - Let's Settle" (1850), it is through intra-family conflicts that public contradictions are shown. It was with this play that Ostrovsky's theater began, it was in it that new principles of stage action, the behavior of an actor, and theatrical entertainment first appeared.

Creativity Ostrovsky was new to Russian drama. His works are characterized by the complexity and complexity of conflicts, his element is a socio-psychological drama, a comedy of manners. The features of his style are speaking surnames, specific author's remarks, peculiar titles of plays, among which proverbs are often used, comedies based on folklore motives. The conflict of Ostrovsky's plays is mainly based on the incompatibility of the hero with the environment. His dramas can be called psychological, they contain not only external conflict, but also the inner drama of the moral principle. Everything in the plays historically accurately recreates the life of society, from which the playwright takes his plots. New hero Ostrovsky's drama - a simple man - determines the originality of the content, and Ostrovsky creates a "folk drama". He accomplished a huge task - he made the "little man" a tragic hero. Ostrovsky saw his duty as a dramatic writer in making the analysis of what was happening the main content of the drama. “A dramatic writer ... does not compose what was - it gives life, history, legend; his main task is to show on the basis of what psychological data some event took place and why it was so and not otherwise ”- this, according to the author, is the essence of the drama. Ostrovsky treated dramaturgy as mass art educating people, defined the purpose of the theater as a "school of public morals". His very first performances shocked with their truthfulness and simplicity, honest heroes with a "hot heart". The playwright created, "combining the high with the comic", he created forty-eight works and invented more than five hundred heroes.

Ostrovsky's plays are realistic. In the merchant environment, which he observed day after day and believed that the past and present of society were united in it, Ostrovsky reveals those social conflicts that reflect the life of Russia. And if in "The Snow Maiden" he recreates the patriarchal world, through which modern problems are only guessed, then his "Thunderstorm" is an open protest of the individual, a person's desire for happiness and independence. This was perceived by playwrights as an affirmation of the creative principle of love of freedom, which could become the basis new drama. Ostrovsky never used the definition of "tragedy", designating his plays as "comedies" and "dramas", sometimes providing explanations in the spirit of "pictures of Moscow life", "scenes from village life”, “scenes from the life of the outback”, indicating that we are talking about the life of an entire social environment. Dobrolyubov said that Ostrovsky created new type dramatic action: without didactics, the author analyzed the historical origins of modern phenomena in society. Historical approach to family and social relations- the pathos of Ostrovsky's creativity. Among his heroes are people of different ages, divided into two camps - young and old. For example, as Yu. M. Lotman writes, in The Thunderstorm Kabanikha is the “keeper of antiquity”, and Katerina “carries the creative beginning of development”, which is why she wants to fly like a bird.

The dispute between antiquity and newness, according to the literary critic, is an important aspect of the dramatic conflict in Ostrovsky's plays. Traditional forms of life are regarded as eternally renewing, and only in this the playwright sees their viability... The old enters into the new, into modern life, in which it can play the role of either a “fettering” element, oppressing its development, or stabilizing, providing strength to the emerging novelty, depending on the content of the old that preserves the folk life. The author always sympathizes with young heroes, poeticizes their desire for freedom, selflessness. The title of the article by A. N. Dobrolyubov “A ray of light in a dark kingdom” fully reflects the role of these heroes in society. They are psychologically similar to each other, the author often uses already developed characters. The theme of the position of a woman in the world of calculation is also repeated in "The Poor Bride", "Hot Heart", "Dowry".

Independent work No. 7

Subject: Comprehension of the ideal of a person living in a transitional era (based on the novel by I.A. Goncharov "Oblomov").

The novel "Oblomov" was written by I.A. Goncharov in 1859 and immediately attracted the attention of critics with the problems posed in the novel. "Oblomov" is a socio-psychological novel depicting the destructive influence of the nobility and landlord environment on the human personality. The author with objective accuracy and completeness depicted Russian life in the first half of the 19th century, which he had observed since childhood. The main character of the novel is Ilya Ilyich Oblomov - a man of about thirty-two or three years old, of medium height, pleasant appearance, with dark gray eyes, but with the absence of any definite idea, any concentration in facial features. The plot of the novel is the life path of Ilya Ilyich, from childhood until his death. The main theme of the novel is "Oblomovism" - a way of life, a vital ideology; this is apathy, passivity, isolation from reality, contemplation of life around you, but the main thing is the absence of labor, practical inactivity. The concept of "Oblomovism" is far from applicable to Oblomovka alone with its inhabitants, it is a "reflection of Russian life", the key to unraveling many of its phenomena. In the 19th century, the life of many Russian landowners was similar to the life of the Oblomovites, and therefore "Oblomovism" can be called the "dominant disease" of that time. The essence of "Oblomovism" is revealed by Goncharov through the depiction of Oblomov's life, most of which the hero spends lying on the sofa, dreaming and making all kinds of plans. Education, the atmosphere in which little Oblomov grew up played a huge role in shaping his character and worldview. Ilya Ilyich was born in Oblomovka - this "blessed corner of the earth", where "there is nothing grandiose, wild and gloomy", there are no "neither terrible storms nor destruction", where deep silence, peace and imperturbable calm reign. At the Oblomov estate, the midday "all-consuming, invincible sleep, a true likeness of death" was traditional. And little Ilyusha grew up in this atmosphere, was surrounded by care and attention: his mother, nanny and the entire large retinue of the Oblomov family showered the boy with caresses and praises. The slightest attempt by the child to do something on his own was immediately suppressed: he was often forbidden to run anywhere, at the age of fourteen he was not even able to dress himself. Thus, Ilya Ilyich was more and more "impregnated with Oblomovism", the ideal of life was gradually formed in his mind. Already an adult, Oblomov was characterized, in my opinion, by a childish reverie. Life in his dreams seemed to him calm, measured, stable, and the beloved woman - in her qualities more reminiscent of a mother - loving, caring, sympathetic. Oblomov was so immersed in the world of his dreams that he completely broke away from reality, which he was unable to accept. But the habit of obtaining the satisfaction of his desires not from his own efforts, but from others, developed in him moral slavery. By the age of 32, Ilya Ilyich turned into a "baybaka" - an apathetic creature whose life is limited to an apartment on Gorokhovaya Street, a dressing gown made of Persian fabric and lying on a sofa. Why this struggle, when you can live on the money he receives from the estate. Gradually, he breaks with the service, and then with society. Lying down became his normal state. A bathrobe and a sofa replace all the joys of life for him. Sometimes Oblomov tried to read, but reading tired him. Such a state kills positive human qualities in Oblomov, of which there are many in him. He is honest, humane, smart. The writer repeatedly emphasizes in it "pigeon meekness." Stolz recalls that once, about ten years ago, he had spiritual ideals. He read Rousseau, Schiller, Goethe, Byron, did mathematics, studied English language, thought about the fate of Russia, wanted to serve the motherland. But Oblomov did not find an application for his enormous moral, spiritual potential, he turned out to be "an extra person." It seems to me that if it were not for the upbringing that gave rise to Oblomov’s inability to work, this person would benefit others and would not live his life in vain. But, as Ilya Ilyich himself says, "Oblomovism" ruined him, it was she who did not let him get up from the couch, start a new, full life. Stolz, Volkov, Sudbinsky, Penkin, Alekseev, Tarantiev - they all tried to bring Oblomov out of a state of dead rest, to include him in life. Unfortunately, nothing came of this, because Ilya Ilyich rooted too tightly to rest: "He has grown to this pit with a sore spot: try to tear it off - there will be death." Oblomov completely absorbed Ilya Ilyich, who surrounded him in childhood, she did not leave him until his death. A kind, intelligent man, Oblomov, lies on the sofa in a comfortable dressing gown, and life is gone forever. The wonderful girl Olga Ilyinskaya, who fell in love with Oblomov and tried in vain to save him, asks: "What ruined you? There is no name for this evil ... - There is ... "Oblomovism," our hero answers. look, lack of will and laziness. These are the pernicious properties of character that do not allow Oblomov to serve his ideals, work on himself. In his present position, he could not find something to his liking anywhere, because he did not understand the meaning of life at all, and could not reach a reasonable perspectives on one's relationship with others.

The main representatives of this trend in Russia are Karamzin and Dmitriev. Sentimentalism appeared in Europe as a counterbalance to French philosophical rationalism (Voltaire). A sentimental trend originates in England, then spreads to Germany, France and penetrates into Russia.

In contrast to the pseudo-classical school, the authors of this trend choose plots from ordinary, everyday life, the heroes are ordinary, middle or lower class people. The interest of sentimental works lies not in the description of historical events or the deeds of heroes, but in psychological analysis experiences and feelings ordinary person in a setting Everyday life. The authors set out to pity the reader, showing the deep and touching experiences of simple, inconspicuous people, drawing attention to their sad, often dramatic fate.

Sentimentalism in literature

From the constant appeal to the experiences and feelings of the characters, the authors of this direction have developed cult of feeling , - from this came the name of the whole direction (feeling - sentiment), sentimentalism . Along with the cult of feeling develops cult of nature , descriptions of pictures of nature appear, disposing the soul to sensitive reflections.

Sentimentalism in Russian Poetry. Video lecture

In literature, sentimentalism expresses itself chiefly in the form of sensitive novels, sentimental journeys, and so-called philistine dramas; in poetry, in elegies. First author sentimental novels was English writer Richardson. Pushkin's Tatyana read his novels, "Charles Grandison", "Clarissa Harlow". In these novels, the types of simple, sensitive heroes and heroines are brought out, and next to them, bright types of villains, emphasizing their virtue. The disadvantage of these novels is their unusual length; in the novel "Clarissa Harlow" - 4,000 pages! (The full title of this work in Russian translation: "The noteworthy life of the maiden Clarissa Garlov, a true story"). In England, the first author of the so-called sentimental journeys was stern. He wrote. "A sentimental journey through France and Italy"; in this work, attention is drawn mainly to the experiences and feelings of the hero in connection with the places through which he passes. In Russia, Karamzin wrote his Letters from a Russian Traveler under the influence of Stern.

Sentimental philistine dramas, nicknamed "Tearful Comedies" (Comedies larmoyantes), also appeared first in England, spread in Germany and France and appeared in translations in Russia. Even at the beginning of the reign of Catherine the Great, Beaumarchais's play "Eugene", translated by Pushnikov, was staged in Moscow. Sumarokov, a staunch supporter of false classicism, resented the staging of this "tearful comedy" and sought the sympathy and support of Voltaire.

In poetry, sentimentalism expressed itself mainly in elegies . This - lyric poems and reflections, most often sad. "Sensitivity", sadness, melancholy - these are the main distinctive features sentimental elegy. Elegy writers often described the night Moonlight, a cemetery - anything that could create a mysterious, dreamy atmosphere that matched their feelings. In England one of the most famous poets Sentimentalism was Gray, who wrote The Rural Cemetery, which was subsequently so successfully translated by Zhukovsky.

The main representative of Russian sentimentalism was Karamzin. In the spirit of this literary trend, he wrote Letters from a Russian Traveler, Poor Lisa (see summary and full text) and other stories.

It should be noted that any artistic and literary "school" most clearly expresses its characteristics in the works of "student-imitators", since major artists, the founders of the “school”, the initiators of the “direction”, are always more diverse and wider than their students. Karamzin was not exclusively a "sentimentalist" - even in his early works, he assigned a place of honor to "reason"; in addition, it has traces of future romanticism ("Bornholm Island") and neoclassicism ("Athenian life"). Meanwhile, numerous of his students did not notice this breadth of Karamzin's creativity and brought only his "sensitivity" to a ridiculous extreme. In doing so, they emphasized the shortcomings of sentimentalism and led this trend to a gradual disappearance.

Of the students of Karamzin, the most famous are V.V. Izmailov, A.E. Izmailov, Prince. P. I. Shalikov, P. Yu. Lvov. V. Izmailov wrote in imitation of Karamzin's "Letters from a Russian Traveler" - "Journey to Midday Russia". A. Izmailov wrote the story "Poor Masha" and the novel "Eugene, or the pernicious consequences of spiritual education and community." However, this talented work is distinguished by such realism that it can be ranked among the " realistic direction of this era. Prince Shalikov was the most typical sentimentalist: he wrote both sensitive poems (the collection The Fruit of Free Feelings) and short stories (two Travels to Little Russia, Travel to Kronstadt), which are distinguished by extreme sensitivity. L. Lvov was a more talented novelist - several stories remained from him: "Russian Pamela", "Rose and Love", "Alexander and Yulia".

You can name other then literary works, written in imitation of "Poor Lisa": "Seduced Henrietta, or the Triumph of Deception over Weakness and Delusion", "Beautiful Tatyana, Living at the Sole Sparrow Hills”, “The Story of Poor Mary”, “Inna”, “Maryina Grove” by Zhukovsky, A. Popov “Lily” (1802), “Poor Lilla” (1803), A. Kropotova “The Spirit of a Russian Woman” (1809), A. E "Sweet and Tender Hearts" (1800), Svechinsky "Ukrainian Orphan" (1805), "The Novel of My Neighbors" (1804), Prince Dolgorukov's "Unfortunate Lisa" (1811).

The galaxy of sensitive poets among the Russian public had admirers, but also had many enemies. She was ridiculed by both old pseudo-classical writers and young realist writers.

The theorist of Russian sentimentalism was V. Podshivalov, a contemporary and literary ally of Karamzin, who at the same time published magazines (“Reading for taste and reason”, “Pleasant pastime”) with him. According to the same program as Karamzin, in 1796 he published an interesting argument: "Sensitivity and quirkiness", in which he tried to determine the difference between real "sensitivity" in false "mannership", "bizarreness".

Sentimentalism made itself felt at that time in our country, too, in the flourishing of the "petty-bourgeois drama." In vain were the efforts of the pseudo-classics to fight this "illegal" child of dramaturgy - the public defended their favorite plays. Kotzebue's translated dramas ("Hatred of People and Repentance", "Son of Love", "The Hussites near Naumburg") were especially popular. Over the course of several decades, these touching works willingly looked at by the Russian public and caused numerous imitations in Russian. H. Ilyin wrote the drama: "Lisa, or the Triumph of Gratitude", "Generosity, or Recruitment"; Fedorov - drama: "Lisa, or the Consequence of Pride and Seduction"; Ivanov: “The Starichkov family, or Prayer for God, but the service does not disappear for the king”, etc.