Styles of the Russian literary language

High culture of speaking and writing, good knowledge and development of flair mother tongue, the ability to use its expressive means, its stylistic diversity is the best support, the surest help and the most reliable recommendation for every person in his social life and creative activity.

V.A. Vinogradov

Language- it is a means of communication between people, an instrument for the formation and expression of thoughts and feelings, a means of assimilating new information, new knowledge. But in order to effectively influence the mind and feelings, the carrier given language must be proficient in it, i.e., have a speech culture.

M. Gorky wrote that language is the primary element, the main material of literature, that is, that vocabulary, syntax, the entire structure of speech is the primary element, the key to understanding the ideas and images of the work. But language is also an instrument of literature: “The struggle for purity, for semantic accuracy, for the sharpness of language is a struggle for an instrument of culture. The sharper this weapon, the more accurately directed - the more victorious it is.

Stylistics(the word "style" comes from the name of the needle, or stylet with which the ancient Greeks wrote on waxed tablets) - this is a branch of the science of language that studies the styles of the literary language (functional styles of speech), the patterns of language functioning in different areas of use, the features of use language tools depending on the situation, content and goals of the statement, the scope and condition of communication. Stylistics introduces the stylistic system of the literary language at all its levels and the stylistic organization of correct (in compliance with the norms of the literary language), accurate, logical and expressive speech. Stylistics teaches the conscious and expedient use of the laws of language and the use of linguistic means in speech.

There are two directions in linguistic stylistics: language stylistics and speech stylistics (functional stylistics). Language stylistics explores the stylistic structure of the language, describes the stylistic means of vocabulary, phraseology and grammar. Functional stylistics studies, first of all, different types of speech, their conditionality by different goals of the utterance. M. N. Kozhina gives the following definition: “ Functional style- This linguistic science, studying the features and patterns of the functioning of the language in various types of speech, corresponding to certain areas of human activity and communication, as well as the speech structure of the functional styles that develop in this case and the "norm" of selection and combination of language means in them "1. At its core, style should be consistently functional. She must reveal the connection different types speech with the subject, the purpose of the statement, with the conditions of communication, the addressee of the speech, the attitude of the author to the subject of the speech. The most important category of style is functional styles- varieties of literary speech (literary language), serving various aspects of public life. Styles-This different ways use of language in communication. Each style of speech is characterized both by the originality of the selection of language means, and by their unique combination with each other.

Thus, five styles of the Russian literary language are distinguished:

Ø colloquial

Ø official business

Ø scientific

Ø journalistic

Ø artistic.

Conversational style

Conversational style refers to the oral form of the existence of a language. The distinctive features of oral speech can be entirely attributed to the colloquial style. However, the concepts of "oral speech" and "conversational style" should not be confused. Oral speech- a phenomenon wider than style. Although the conversational style is mainly realized in the oral form of communication, some genres of other styles are also carried out in oral speech, for example: report, lecture, report, etc.

The intra-style features of the conversational style include the ease of presentation, its concreteness, expressiveness, the expression of a subjective attitude to what is being stated, the direct influence of extra-linguistic elements, and so on.

The actual linguistic features of the colloquial style are due to its intra-style features.

The vocabulary of the colloquial style is divided into two large groups:

1. common colloquial words;

2. accelerating words, socially or dialectally limited.

Common vocabulary, in turn, is divided into colloquial-literary (connected by the norms of literary use) and colloquial (not bound by strict norms of use), colloquial speech adjoins the latter.

Colloquial vocabulary is also heterogeneous:

1) colloquial speech, which is on the verge of literary use, not rude in its essence, somewhat familiar, everyday, for example: potatoes instead of potatoes, ingenuity instead of ingenuity to become instead of happen, to be fined instead of to be guilty.

2) non-literary vernacular, rude, for example: drive up instead of trying, plop instead of fall, weave instead of talking absurd, dragging around, wandering around instead of walking around; this includes vulgarisms proper, and swear words thorn (eyes), sting, die; dude, lackey, etc. Such words are used for certain stylistic purposes - usually when depicting the negative phenomena of life.

Colloquial vocabulary, socially or dialectally limited, includes such lexical groups as colloquial professionalisms (for example, the names of brown bear varieties: vulture, oatmeal, anthill, etc.), dialectisms (gut - speak, veksha - squirrel, stubble - stubble) slang vocabulary (plaisir - pleasure, fun; plein air - nature), argotic (split - betray; salaga, salazonok - young, inexperienced; crusts - boots). Many jargonisms arose even before the revolution in the speech of the ruling classes, some jargonisms were preserved from the speech usage of the declassed elements. Slang vocabulary can also be associated with the age community of generations, for example, in the language of youth: cheat sheet, couple (two).

All these categories of vocabulary have a narrow scope; in terms of expression, they are characterized by extreme reduction.

The main lexical layer of the colloquial style is made up of commonly used words, both actually colloquial and colloquial. Both of these categories of words are close to each other, the line between them is unsteady and mobile, and sometimes difficult to catch, it’s not for nothing that many words in different dictionaries are provided with different marks (for example, the words squatting, really in “ explanatory dictionary» ed. D.N. Ushakov are classified as colloquial, and in the four-volume "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" _ as colloquial; words rich, carminative, sourness in the Explanatory Dictionary, ed. D.N. Ushakov are rated as colloquial, but in the "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" they do not have marks, that is, they are classified as interstyle - stylistically neutral). In the Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. S.I. Ozhegov expanded the boundaries of colloquial vocabulary: many words marked in other dictionaries as vernacular are classified as colloquial. Some colloquial words in dictionaries have a double mark - colloquial and regional, since many common dialectisms go into the category colloquial words.

The colloquial style is characterized by the predominance of words with an emotionally expressive coloring, labeled "affectionate", "joking", "abusive", "ironic", "diminutive", "contemptuous", etc.

The syntax of colloquial speech is also characterized by omissions, incomplete statements, an abundance of ellipses and incomplete sentences, word-sentences, numerous repetitions, plug-in constructions, the use of interrogative and exclamatory sentences, a rhetorical question as a form of emotional statement or summing up, inversion of various parts of speech (especially adjectives as definitions in nominal phrases), weakening of syntactic forms of communication between parts of a statement , the use of non-union complex sentences, synonymous with complex sentences, the predominance writing sentences over subordinating the dialogic nature of the utterance.

Colloquial speech can be used for certain stylistic purposes. In the author's speech, it performs the functions of stylization and evaluation.

In the evaluative function, colloquial speech in combination with book speech (in the speech of the author and in the speech of characters) serves the purpose of satirical reduction (this explains its ability to act in an evaluative function), a means of creating a comic effect. Colloquial speech is also used to realistically depict the life of a certain social environment, to convey the manner of a simple, relaxed speech. It is also a wonderful means of speech characterization.

Vernacular, which does not have the emotional connotations of harsh condemnation, gives the statement a rough tone, and therefore its use in literary speech is very limited. It is used mainly for artistic and expressive purposes (as a means of speech characterization of a character). In official business and scientific styles, vernacular is unacceptable.

In the works of modern fiction elements of colloquial style are very often used in improperly direct speech.

At present, the literary and colloquial variety of the colloquial style is the main functional and stylistic variety of the national language, on the basis of which and due to which book styles are enriched.

Formal business style

Let us dwell on the characterization of the book style that is the most closed from a functional point of view - the official business style.

The official business style includes various documents: from state acts to business correspondence. Despite the difference in the language of different documents (depending on their purpose), this style as a whole has many common features specific to it. The main intra-style features of this style include clarity, accuracy, imperativeness, prescriptive nature, completeness and objectivity of the statement, concreteness, clarity of wording, which is determined by the main purpose of documents - to inform about indisputable facts. This is also the logic and conciseness of presentation, special forms of material arrangement.

Intra-style features form the entire proper language structure of the style.

Standardization, uniformity of speech means, speech standards and even a well-known template inherent in a number of documents are necessary for the convenience of communication in this area.

According to the degree of standardization, official business documents are heterogeneous. Some without a certain standard form lose their legal value (for example, a passport), others print as a stereotype for ease of communication (for example, letterheads), others (for example, reports, protocols, business correspondence, etc.) do not have stable standard forms.

However, all three groups share some specific linguistic characteristics. This is at the lexical level: a kind of vocabulary and phraseology that is not found in other styles (for example: lives, occupies an area instead of lives, a person instead of a person, enrolled instead of accepting, leave is given instead of given): the use of words in their direct specific meanings; lack of emotionally colored and other-style (colloquial, colloquial) vocabulary; widespread use of speech standards (including those with denominative prepositions for purposes, at the expense of, from the outside, in the area and verbal nouns) and other verbal stencils, which are quite appropriate in a number of genres of official business style.

Some types of official business documents are characterized by the use of words not in a direct, but in a figurative sense, as well as the use of "high" vocabulary. “High” vocabulary (the ambassador has departed (not left), now, power, etc.) is used to give significance and solemnity to the speech.

To comply with international etiquette, diplomatic juments use the so-called etiquette, complimentary vocabulary: His Highness, Madam, His Excellency, etc.

At the syntactic level, for the official business style, a clear construction of a complex sentence with a distinct division into certain segments and a pronounced connection between the parts of the sentence (union, prepositional, pronominal, adverbial), with adverbial and participial turns is specific. Word order is usually direct. Introductory words are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence. The adverbial adverbial clause is placed before the main clause if the emphasis is on the circumstances of the action, and at the end if they only explain the main idea; the circumstance is placed closer to the word to which it refers. Passive constructions are widely used in official business style. They are used in cases where it is necessary to emphasize the very fact of performing an action (for example: 125 people were hired, a telegram was sent, etc.) without indicating the subject of the action. Passive constructions are also used for speech etiquette (for example, we have repeatedly indicated, emphasized, noted, etc.).

There are standard speech models for a number of documents. So, a service document is usually built according to the scheme: introduction, main part, evidence, conclusion. In the introduction, the question is justified or the reason for its occurrence is indicated; A reference is given to a higher organization, in pursuance of the order or decision of which an official document is drawn up. The main part sets out (and proves) the essence of the issue. In conclusion, conclusions are drawn that should logically follow from the presentation.

scientific style

What are the features of the second, relatively functionally closed style - scientific?

Scientific style is a broad concept. It is used in the field of science and technology, but combines types of literature that are heterogeneous in form, which are very diverse in purpose and content.

TO scientific literature include monographs, articles in scientific journals, scientific and reference, reference and encyclopedic, educational literature, scientific and technical information (abstract, abstract, etc.), industrial and technical literature, etc.

For the scientific style, the specific intra-style features that form its entire language system are abstract generalization, logicality, objectivity and accuracy, in contrast to artistic speech, common property which is an artistic-figurative concretization.

Scientific presentation is designed for logical, not emotional-sensory perception. Therefore, emotional linguistic elements do not play a decisive role in scientific works. However, this does not exclude emotional elements in scientific works (especially in polemical ones). Moreover, they give scientific prose a deep persuasiveness, especially because they sharply state with the general "dispassionate", dry nature of scientific presentation.

What is typical for the scientific speech of our days?

First of all, the scientific style is characterized by saturation with factual material, accurate and concise information.

The task of a scientific work is the proof of certain provisions and hypotheses, their argumentation, a systematic presentation scientific problems. Therefore, a scientific work mainly consists of a chain of reasoning and evidence.

As you know, the task and content of the statement determine the form of the expression. A scientific statement has its own form of expression, its own style, determined by the content of the scientific message and the goals that it faces.

The scientific style refers to the written and bookish type of speech (although it can manifest itself in oral speech in the form of conversations, reports, messages, speeches, questions, remarks in discussions, lectures, etc.) and therefore has all its features, and, first of all, by the fact that scientific works are written in a general literary, strictly standardized language. But the scientific style is characterized by a special stock of words, phrases and constructions necessary in this area of ​​communication.

The following general linguistic features of the scientific style can be named: compliance with the norms of the literary language, accuracy, clarity and conciseness in expressing thoughts, a high percentage of terms, the use of words in their objective specific meanings, “impersonality”, the monologue nature of the statement, consistency, completeness, completeness of the statement, close connection separate parts statements, which is achieved by the wide use of complex sentences with allied, pronominal, adverbial connections, participles, participle turns, enumerations, the use of nominal combinations (definitions with a defined word) with a "chain" of genitive cases (especially in titles), the use of conventional signs and symbols.

The scientific style is heterogeneous in its composition. In it, first of all, one can distinguish such varieties, sub-styles as scientific-technical and scientific-humanitarian speech.

Scientific works may differ in their linguistic features depending on genre differences, the reader's address, the individual style of the writer, etc.

The lexical and phraseological composition of the scientific style includes book and written vocabulary.

The basis of any scientific presentation, more than half of its entire vocabulary, is made up of commonly used words in their direct concrete meanings.

In scientific works, foreign-style vocabulary is not used, words that correspond to marks in the dictionary of the Russian language: abusive, ironic, playful, affectionate, familiar, etc., words with bright stylistic coloring, taken from other styles (for example, vernacular), are rare there are figurative meanings of words.

The main attention in scientific works is drawn to the logical side of the presentation. Therefore, it is widely used manual and technical terminology (since it has the function of transmitting scientific concepts) and general scientific vocabulary, including abstract words denoting abstract concepts. specific subjects, as well as people are mainly given on the basis of, action, specialty or position.

At the syntactic level, the scientific style is characterized by the widespread use of phrases (including polynomials, especially nominal ones) and the genitive case in nominal combinations, for example: Analysis of concentration values ​​of individual measurements in each series is low.

A specific feature of scientific speech is its completeness, completeness and logical sequence of presentation, close connection between individual sections of the text, individual sentences. The main structure of scientific speech is a narrative sentence with a neutral (in terms of style) lexical content, with a logically correct word order with an allied connection between parts of the sentence.

Interrogative sentences perform specific functions in scientific speech related to the desire of the writer to draw attention to what is being stated.

For scientific text complex and complicated sentences of various types are characteristic. At the same time, a complex sentence in scientific works is distinguished by a clear logical structure, clarity syntactic links.

In scientific works, complex sentences are more common than complex sentences. This is due to the fact that subordinating constructions express complex causal, temporal, conditional, investigative and similar relationships, and the fact that the individual parts in a complex sentence are more closely related to each other than in a compound one.

Syntactic means of expression are used in scientific literature to a very limited extent and for a different purpose than in fiction or journalistic literature. Here it is, as a rule, a means to help the reader more easily assimilate scientific truths.

In general, scientific speech is characterized by a very clear syntax, which allows one to widely argue one or another position, avoid ambiguity, ambiguity of the statement, and logically state the train of thought.

Journalistic style

As for the latter, the proper communicative book style (journalistic) and aesthetic-communicative (artistic), these styles do not have functional isolation and, in essence, include elements of many styles.

Journalistic style is a heterogeneous concept, and this is due to the variety of journalistic genres.

The intra-style features of the journalistic style include informative richness of speech, concreteness, factuality, logicality, conciseness and expressiveness, emotionality, motivation of presentation.

The journalistic style, which serves the sphere of politics and ideology, aims to accurately, quickly and in an accessible form inform the population about the most important events that have taken place in our country and abroad, as well as to influence the reader, causing him a certain attitude to the depicted, because journalism is a means mass media and propaganda.

The informative function of the journalistic style, its logicality and factuality lead to the widespread use of information sentences in this style, reporting on an event or fact. Such stylistic features of the journalistic style as expressiveness, emotionality, motivation, lead to the widespread use of lexical and phraseological and syntactic means of expression (tropes and figures) in this style.

The journalistic style is realized in the periodical press, on television, radio, in political speeches. Newspaper and journalistic genres are not the same and multifaceted. Features of the language of the newspaper are determined by the functional diversity of newspaper genres and their stylistic heterogeneity. Some genres are pure journalism (reportage, review note), others border on fiction (feuilleton, essay, pamphlet), and others border on official business literature (leading article).

The basis of newspaper journalism is the principles of social and evaluative use of linguistic means. In the language of newspaper journalism, the organic unity of the logical and figurative principles, the generalization of reasoning and evidence of scientific presentation and the figurative concretization of artistic description are realized. Hence, the language of the newspaper combines informativeness, logicality and obligatory emotionality, evaluativeness, the unity of such opposing linguistic tendencies as an orientation towards the standardization of speech, the use of speech standards (speech clichés), on the one hand, and the desire for expression, to enliven speech, on the other.

At the syntactic level, the newspaper-journalistic style is characterized by the simplicity of syntactic constructions; streamlining the sentence structure; frequent inversion of sentence members that are the logical center of the phrase; the use of elements of poetic syntax (rhetorical question, anaphora, epiphora, gradation, etc.), especially in propaganda works; the use of elements of colloquial syntax (ellipsis, attachment, question-answer form, etc.).

The report combines strict documentation, objectivity and protocol with the emotionality and picturesqueness of the image (the effect of the presence of the author).

The editorial is specific in language and style, which contains the most important material in the ideological and political sense, and poses the problems of the state and international importance. This is both a directive and journalistic work. Hence the presence in the leading article of speech clichés, on the one hand, and emotionally expressive structures, on the other.

Diverse in terms of linguistic and stylistic features are essays (a genre bordering between journalistic and fiction), in which the presence of the author's "I" is especially noticeable, and a feuilleton, and a pamphlet, the basis of which is satirism, a satirical attitude to reality and a direct assessment of negative facts, and hence the use of emotionally expressive means.

In general, the language of the newspaper is characterized by a bright journalistic passion; the use of semantically significant language units, expressive-modal forms; the convergence of book speech with colloquial (democratization of the language), which leads to stylistic looseness, a variety of means of expression; conciseness, accuracy, clarity, accessibility.

Art style

The concept of the language of fiction is ambiguous. It includes the concept of the language and style of the writer. The language of the writer is understood as the language units used in the text and performing certain functions there. The style of the writer, his work of art is the reflection and implementation in the text of the work of the elements of the artistic style of speech, his figurative system. __

The language of fiction occupies a special place in the literary language, because it uses all the means of the common language to create artistic images and influence the mind and feelings of the reader.

The features of the style of fiction include, firstly, the unity of communicative and aesthetic function, which is determined by the dual task of fiction: not only to tell, but also to influence the reader; secondly, this is the variety of linguistic means used in fiction: here, in essence, elements of any functional style can be used; thirdly, this is the widespread use of tropes, figures and other figurative and expressive means of the language; fourthly, it is the presence of the image of the author, his author's individuality, his worldview, worldview, ideological and aesthetic views and so on.

Fiction is a special way of reflecting and cognizing reality. In a work of art, according to V. V. Vinogradov, an emotional-figurative, aesthetic transformation of the means of the national language takes place. The task of the writer is to give a true artistic and social understanding of the facts depicted.

Distinctive interior features artistic speech are artistic figurativeness, semantic capacity and ambiguity of the artistic word, artistic-figurative concretization and emotionality. All linguistic means and stylistic devices in artistic speech are subject to the disclosure of the ideological and artistic concept of the work, and it is the intention of the work that determines the expediency and motivation of the language means and stylistic devices used by the author.

“In the style of the writer, in accordance with his artistic intentions, all the linguistic means used by the artist are internally connected and aesthetically justified.”

When analyzing a work of art, it is necessary to reveal the features of the verbal form that expresses the ideological content.

The style of fiction is wider and more diverse than individual functional styles. The style of fiction is not a set of techniques, but the most important property poetic figurative thinking. The writer takes from all the functional styles of the common language what he needs to reveal the topic he has chosen.

In a work of art, three actual speech planes are distinguished: the author's narration, the speech of the characters, the author's characterization of the hero.

In the author's narration, which is a model of the literary language among true artists of the word, the normative literary language is realized, usually with a wide use of non-neutral language units, elements of colloquial literary speech are widely used, especially in works written in the form of a casual conversation with the reader.

IN author's description characters, expressive and stylistically colored language units of the literary and colloquial variety of the colloquial style of speech are most often used. Sometimes colloquial elements are also used.

In the speech of the characters there can be (depending on the social position of the hero, for the speech characteristics of the hero) all the elements of colloquial speech: literary and non-literary (colloquial, slang, dialect, etc.).

When analyzing the speech characteristics of the characters, it is important to remember the stylistic features of the colloquial everyday style, since they are realized in the speech of the characters. These are ease, liveliness, specificity of speech, its emotionality and expressiveness, a kind of standardity and stereotype in the choice of language means, which is associated with the stereotype of many life situations. But in the speech of each character, these features are realized in different ways. Therefore, when analyzing the speech characteristics of the characters, special attention should be paid to the individual characteristics of the speech of the characters, which reveal the speech portrait. this hero. The character's language corresponds to his inner appearance, reveals his character, thoughts and moods, and also corresponds to his social, professional status and cultural environment.

Special attention should be paid to the issue of figurative speech in a literary text. Imagery here is created not only by the figurative meaning of the word and special lexical and syntactic devices. And stylistically neutral means of language, connected by the unity of the poetic tone of the passage or the entire work, can play a role in creating the image. The imagery and poetic power of a word sometimes lie in special phrases, 8 of which the most ordinary words acquire great power, and in separate stressed keywords. An example is the many prose works of Pushkin and Chekhov, in which, it would seem, the most everyday words (and not paths) create an image.

Both grammatical forms of the word and various syntactic means of the language can acquire greater expressiveness. Not only stylistic figures, but also parallel syntactic constructions, word order, etc.

Thus, two types of language means are used to create figurativeness: firstly, these are actually figurative means of the language itself - lexical, semantic, phraseological poetisms, tropes, figures; secondly, these are elements that are generally neutral in language, which become figurative in the structure of a work of art.

Generally individual style The writer's work is determined by its subject matter and lexical composition.

Bibliography

1. Golovin B.N. Fundamentals of speech culture / B.N. Golovin.-M.: Higher School, 1988.-320p.

2. Pustovalov P.S. Handbook for the development of speech / P.S. Pustovalov, M.P. Senkevich.- M.: Enlightenment, 1987.-288s.

3. Cheshko L.A. Russian language / L.A. Cheshko.- M.: Vyssh.shk., 1981.-261p.

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literary style

Consideration of the concept literary style it is advisable to complete the analysis of typological categories, because it is in style that the most different features artistic work. An innumerable number of works of various kinds are devoted to the description and comprehension of this concept. It is well known that it arose in Antiquity within the framework of rhetoric and since then has not ceased to occupy the minds of both artists and researchers. The systematization of studies related to the interpretation of this category is contained in many works, of which the monograph by A.N. Sokolov "Theory of Styles" (1968) and posthumously published work by A.F. Losev "The problem of artistic style" (1994).

All those who dealt with this problem were primarily concerned with the question To what area of ​​the work is this concept most applicable? The vast majority of researchers came to the conclusion that the concept of style is associated with the way of depiction and expression, in other words, with the form. Goethe, using terms simple imitation, manner, style, I noticed that style is recognized in visible, tangible images and helps to reveal the essence of things. Hegel, distinguishing between manner, originality and style, emphasized that style manifests itself in the way of depiction, follows from the understanding of the subject and meets the requirements of a certain type of art. Taine also associated style with outward expression. The tradition of relating style to mode of expression was maintained by most style theorists in subsequent eras. Russian scientists P.N. Sakulina, V.V. Vinogradova, V.M. Zhirmunsky, A.V. Chicherina, Ya.E. Elsberg, G.N. Pospelova, A.N. Sokolova and others.

Naturally, the style was perceived and is perceived as meaningfully conditioned features and ways of expression. In this regard, the question arose about the prerequisites and sources of style, which were named style factors(Pospelov, 1970). The style factors include problem-thematic moments, the type of modality, genre affiliation works, features of the method and other aspects of the content plan. Along with the concept style factors the concept style bearers, to which, obviously, the most diverse aspects of the plan of expression can be reckoned, differing depending on what kind of work the work belongs to - epic, lyrical or dramatic.

However, all these the features of the form and method of expression only then acquire the status and meaning of style, when in their selection, combination, organization one can see the system, regularity, necessity, due to the content. In an effort to designate this basic quality of style, scientists have proposed different definitions: order in the expression of thought (Buffon), balance and symmetry (Winkelmann), proportionality (Schlegel), coordination of the elements of a work of art (Taine), orderliness (Walzel), unity (Sakulin), structurality (Losev), integrity, consistency, consistency ( Pospelov), the interaction of components, a sense of regularity in their ratio (Sokolov).

The question of the classification, or typology of styles in the early twentieth century. was staged in works devoted to painting, sculpture and architecture, in particular in the book by G. Wölfflin "Basic Concepts of Art History", where the evolution of style in the works of the Renaissance - Baroque era was considered and five principles of form organization were identified. This question arose in the studies of Russian art critics. In relation to literature, this aspect has attracted attention and has been carefully discussed in a series of works on theory and typology. literary styles created at the Institute of World Literature of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the 70-80s (Theory of Literary Styles, 1976, 1977, 1982.) During the discussion, classic style(based on the work of Petrarch, Goethe, Lope de Vega, Shakespeare, French classicists, Pushkin); a style characterized by a certain ratio of harmony and disharmony; a style that combines analyticism and polyphonism, and styles that have not received a special definition, but are associated with the work of major artists of the word - Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Chekhov, Gorky, Sholokhov.

Apparently, it is possible to discover this or that regularity, which makes it possible to ascertain the presence of style and its specificity, only through analysis and careful study the text of the work. This is facilitated by the use of concepts such as style dominant, or a system of stylistic dominants (Esin 1998). Of course, when identifying dominants, it is possible different ways and different results. Here is one of the judgments of a sensitive and attentive researcher who worked in this area: “The stylistic structure of the works of L. Tolstoy, thoroughly organized by the “dialectics of the soul” with its moral imperative, the stylistic structure of Dostoevsky’s novels, “dialogical”, brought to life by the “dialectics of ideas” and having as its imperative the limit of human possibilities... In relation to Pushkin's stylistic structure, such a structure seems much more confusing... The stylistic structure of "The Life of Klim Samgin" looks illogical, without consequences, without cause: some events in it are pouring after others. And this is the result of the author's conscious principle of showing infinitely more complicated forms of connections between phenomena and events” (Kiselyova, 311–312). Let's try to show with one example what the path of style analysis can be. And as an example, let us take such a complex creation as “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy.

It is advisable to start with the most general view of the work, which primarily implies the perception of it as a whole, and this, in turn, is associated with genre qualities. As you know, Tolstoy seriously thought about the genre of his work: “What is War and Peace? This is not a novel, still less a poem, still less a historical chronicle. “War and Peace” is what the author wanted and could express in the form in which it was expressed” (Tolstoy 1981, vol. 7, 356). It is well known that in the end this great creation was called: an epic novel. Clarifying the question of the genre of War and Peace, it should be said that Tolstoy's work is undoubtedly connected with the novel tradition. The novel, as noted in the "Literary Genres" section, involves the depiction of a situation where the fate of the individual is at the center. This is evidenced by the well-known works of Constant, Stendhal, Balzac, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy himself, the author of the trilogy "Childhood", "Boyhood", "Youth". Of course, in most of the works of these writers, the novel situation, that is, the focus on extraordinary characters and their personal qualities, loomed very clearly, although the characters were sometimes shown in diverse and sometimes broad relationships with one environment or another. But such a large-scale depiction of Russian society during the period of war and peace, which was conceived by Tolstoy this time, has not yet been met. Probably, this circumstance made the writer doubt the belonging of his work to the novel tradition.

In fact, the fate of five heroes is also in the spotlight here, and therefore in the center of the plot - Andrei Bolkonsky, Pierre Bezukhov, Natasha Rostova, Marya Bolkonskaya and Nikolai Rostov. And in total, there are more than 500 characters in War and Peace, which the author describes with varying degrees of completeness and scrupulousness. Total time action is about 15 years. The first meeting with the characters takes place in July 1805. The novel opens with an evening scene at the maid of honor Scherer in St. Petersburg, where Bolkonsky and Bezukhov are present; in the seventh chapter of the first volume, the reader enters the Rostovs' house in Moscow, where they celebrate a family holiday - the name day of Natasha and Countess Rostova; the meeting with Princess Marya will take place in the 22nd chapter, which tells how she lives with her father in the Bald Mountains family estate. Parting comes seven years after the end of World War II.

As for Prince Andrei, it can be seen that his life, with all its complexities and vicissitudes, proceeded before the eyes of readers from 1805 to 1812, when he was mortally wounded as a regiment commander during the Battle of Borodino. Speaking about the fate of Pierre, it must be said that it was especially difficult for him in this life: he had no family, he felt like an illegitimate son, Prince Vasily pushed him into the environment of golden youth, then into the arms of his cold, prudent daughter Helen, which led to an awkward marriage. In addition, special trials fell to Pierre's lot: he felt the breath of death on the Novo-Devichye field, survived captivity when hungry and barefoot was forced to walk on frozen ground, saw the death of both the French and Russians, and his friend Karataev, and in the end - young Petya Rostov. To all this, undoubtedly, were added observations on the behavior higher strata Russian society after the war of 1812, which strengthened him in the idea of ​​the inevitability of changes in the country and the need for his participation in their implementation. Therefore, seven years after the end of the war, we find him coming from St. Petersburg to the Rostov estate Lysy Gory, apparently after a meeting with like-minded people, concerned about the fate of Russia. Thus, according to Tolstoy's plan, it took him a lot of time to realize his role and his purpose. Natasha Rostova also experienced quite a lot - the gain and loss of Bolkonsky, the death of her father, younger brother, deprivation of wartime, the ruin of the family. Therefore, meeting with Pierre after the war, the opportunity for a happy family life and the presence of a spiritual understanding of them with each other is a reward for the suffering she endured. Princess Marya also experienced a lot. Nikolai Rostov, being a combat officer, fortunately survived, gained life and moral experience, although he did not change much intellectually.

As for the mass of heroes, including Anna Pavlovna Sherer, Helen Kuragina-Bezukhova, Prince Vasily, even such heroes as the elder Rostovs and their relative Marya Dmitrievna Akhrosimova, who are sympathetic to the writer, it is very obvious that in their everyday life, and even more so inner world, i.e., consciousness, nothing fundamentally changes from year to year. Means, story timeline, which is about 15 years, are determined by the time, which is determined by the novel's intention, i.e., Tolstoy's intention to show the personality in the process of intellectual and moral searches, in the course of the formation and conscious acquisition of her "I" and her place in life.

Scene also testifies to the novel beginning as defining, because the scene of action is, first of all, the place of residence of Prince Andrei and Nikolai Rostov in different parts of Europe and Russia, Pierre - on trips around Russia, in Mozhaisk, Borodino; Rostovs and Bolkonskys in Moscow, St. Petersburg, estates, as well as in Mytishchi, Posad, Yaroslavl, Voronezh.

Of course, their life goes on in contact with many people, but the closest environment is the family. Belonging to a certain type of family and being rooted in it is a very important factor in the formation of an individual as a person. The most favorable conditions in this respect were for Prince Andrei and Princess Marya. The harsh atmosphere of life in the Bald Mountains and the habit of doing business of any kind laid in Andrei the desire for serious studies, and in Princess Marya the need for a spiritually rich and moral life. Natasha is equally deeply connected with the Rostov family, which is favorable for her and for her relatives, since the world of this family is a world of love, sincerity, simplicity, naturalness. In addition to the family, the same persons are connected with a wider circle of people - with the military environment, with the mass of Muscovites and Petersburgers, with provincial circles, with the local world. Thanks to this, Russian society in 1805-1812. outlined with the utmost completeness and thoroughness, and the concept of "encyclopedia of Russian life", introduced by Belinsky, no less applies to "War and Peace". However, the fullness and scope in the depiction of society do not interfere with constant attention to the fate of the main characters and, thereby, the development and preservation of the novel's idea that organizes the text.

Involvement in the sphere of attention of the events and circumstances of 1812 unusually expands the spatial scope of the narrative by depicting a huge number of events - burning Moscow, abandoned by the Russians and filled with the French, military battles and related troop movements, the movement of Kutuzov's headquarters, the actions of partisan detachments, etc. At the same time, here, i.e., in the corresponding chapters of the third and fourth volumes, as a rule, briefly or in detail the presence of novel characters is reported (Prince Andrei in a conversation with Kutuzov on the eve of the battle, then on one of the sections of the Borodino field; Pierre first there the same, and then in Moscow and in captivity; Nikolai in his detachment; Natasha, together with his family, preparing to leave Moscow and organizing assistance to the wounded, even fifteen-year-old Petya in Denisov’s detachment, etc.). But the main task in many chapters is the depiction of Russia at that moment, which Hegel would call the heroic state of the world, since here the fate of the country is decided, and with it, individual people. This task is also reflected in the nature of the passage of time.

The first two volumes set out the events of seven years (1805 - mid-1812), when an even flow of time prevails, while very often accompanied by an indication of the date of one or another episode. In general, dates are mentioned 95 times in the narrative, including 50 times in the first two volumes, 45 times in the third and fourth ones. But the number 50 refers to seven years, and the number 45 actually refers to one year. This means that at the end time seems to thicken: in 1812, dates are named in 40 cases; in 1813, 1814 and 1820 - in five. If the day and month of the year are not named, then very often it is reported: on the next day, after so many weeks, after three days, etc. This contributes not only to a sense of the authenticity of what is depicted, but also the possibility of including what is happening with the characters in historical time. The change of episodes, scenes and situations is subject to the chronicle principle, while the transition from one situation to another occurs so organically and naturally that it does not cause surprise or doubt, and the border of the transition is very often indicated by an indication of time, whether it be a year, a month or even a day.

So, Tolstoy's work does not lose the qualities of a novel, but acquires the qualities of an epic. Because of this, the chronotope does not change, but is enriched. Time thickens, concentrates, is saturated with events of direct historical significance. However, in the epilogue, the writer returns the characters from the heroic to the novel world and shows how the life of two families - the Rostovs and the Bezukhovs - looks like seven years after the tragic events of 1812. Therefore, the designation of the genre of the entire work as an epic novel is completely justified.

These genre, and therefore, content features give rise to the principles of the image that determine the style Tolstoy, which is most manifested in this work. The impression of breadth, scale, completeness of the picture of the world recreated by the writer is achieved primarily due to the predominance of subject representation and its functional significance, i.e., the ability to convexly, visibly convey the appearance of the heroes, the scene of action, whether it be a house, a landscape, a battlefield, a meeting of a council or headquarters, an official reception or a social event.

This quality evokes a feeling of plasticity, clarity of the depicted. Many examples can be cited to prove it. It is worth remembering the pictures of local life in Lysy Gory, Bogucharovo, Otradnoye, in the estate of Uncle Rostovs, scenes of Moscow, St. Petersburg and military life in different periods time. At the same time, Tolstoy reproduces not only and not so much the interiors, decoration of houses, as Gogol liked to do, but the behavior of people staying within the walls of country or capital houses, on the streets of Moscow and on the battlefields. The description of the name day in the Rostovs' house, gatherings for the ball of Natasha and Sonya, hunting scenes, decorous dinners in the Bolkonskys' house and relaxed holidays in the Rostovs' house are magnificent.

It is impossible not to notice Tolstoy's skill in describing "collective scenes", that is, all kinds of balls, receptions, receptions, battles. In such scenes, the characters of the characters are outlined, and most importantly, the atmosphere of a particular circle or community is conveyed. It is worth recalling the evening at Scherer's, a reception at the English Club in honor of Prince Bagration, a ball in Vilna on the day the war began, meetings at Kutuzov's headquarters, episodes of the battle of Borodino, etc. We will give a short fragment of the description of the St. Petersburg ball (Natasha's first St. “Suddenly everything stirred, the crowd spoke, again parted, and between the two parted rows, at the sound of music playing, the sovereign entered. Behind him were the owner and mistress. The sovereign walked quickly, bowing to the right and left ... The musicians played Polish, known then by the words composed on it. These words began: Alexander, Elizabeth, you delight us. The sovereign went into the living room, the crowd rushed to the doors; several faces with changed expressions walked back and forth. The crowd again retreated from the doors of the drawing room, in which the sovereign appeared. Some young man with a confused look was advancing on the ladies, asking them to step aside. Some ladies, spoiling their toilets, crowded forward. Men began to approach the ladies and line up in Polish pairs.

In addition to the art of subject representation, which Tolstoy masterfully mastered, he was unsurpassed in depicting the inner world of the characters. With a few strokes, the artist was able to convey the state of any actor, be it the aging Countess of Rostov, the young Nikolenka Bolkonsky and many others. The scenes of anxiety of Countess Rostova for Natasha, for Petya, Anna Mikhailovna Drubetskaya for her son, as well as moments testifying to the fear of Nikolai Rostov during one of the battles in Europe, are noteworthy; Andrei Bolkonsky's indignation at the sight of disorder in the Russian army in 1805; Kutuzov's feelings for the outcome of the Battle of Borodino, and even more so for the course of events and the need to preserve the army during the expulsion of the French from Russia.

But the main merit of the writer was in the analysis and reproduction of the subjective world of novel characters, which required special attention and appropriate ways of depicting. Using the thought of one of the researchers of Turgenev's work, one can say: "The most complex multi-component material is used to build the characters of the dominant characters" (Dolotova, 1973). This can be attributed to the heroes of Tolstoy. Tolstoy's psychological manner is characterized by the fact that his psychologism, unlike that of Dostoevsky, "is not conspicuous." It can be indirect when the state of the hero is conveyed through appearance, gestures, mannerisms, facial expressions and the actions themselves, as in episodes that recreate Natasha's excitement before the ball, at the ball, before the explanation with Bolkonsky, after the news of his injury and the presence of the wounded in the convoy. The portraits of heroes are psychologically expressive, for example, the portrait of Andrei Bolkonsky, when, having left St. Petersburg, he arrived under the command of Kutuzov and felt himself needed in military affairs: he looked like a man busy, enjoyable and interesting. His face expressed more satisfaction with himself and those around him; smile and look were more cheerful and attractive.

Direct psychologism is where directly, in the words of the characters themselves, their state is conveyed. The most representative from this point of view monologue speech, addressed very often to themselves. Nikolai Rostov's monologues arise at moments of special unrest and therefore are very emotional: “Six hundred rubles, an ace, a corner, a nine ... it's impossible to win back! ... And how fun it would be at home ... Jack on the pe ... it can't be! And why is he doing this to me?…” Natasha too: “Is it really me, that child girl (that’s what everyone said about me), can I really be a wife from now on, equal to this stranger, dear, smart person respected even by my father? Is that really true?

Is it really true that now it is no longer possible to joke with life, now I am big, now responsibility for my every deed and word lies on me? Yes, what did he ask me? The reflections of Prince Andrei, arising on various occasions, personal and public, as a rule, are more calm and logical: “Yes, these are kind, glorious people who do not understand a single hair of the treasure that they have in Natasha; But good people, which constitute the best background for this especially poetic, overflowing life, charms of a girl to stand out on it! Pierre is emotional to varying degrees, depending on the situation and the topic of his thoughts: “Yes, he is very handsome (about Dolokhov), I know him. It would be a special charm for him to dishonor my name and laugh at me, precisely because I worked for him and despised him, helped him. I know, I understand what salt in his eyes this must give to his deceit, if it were true. Yes, if it were true; but I do not believe, have no right, and cannot believe.” Many examples of this kind could be given.

The peculiarity of Tolstoy's psychologism lies in the ability to combine and match thoughts and moods expressed through the hero's direct speech with thoughts and states conveyed in the form of indirect or improperly direct speech, accompanied by comments by the narrator-author. Improperly direct speech is more complex and difficult for readers to perceive, since here the mental and psychological state of the characters is conveyed by the words of the author, while maintaining the features of the character's speech. There is an opinion that in "War and Peace" internal monologues, transmitted by direct speech, are in the first place, in "Anna Karenina" these two forms coexist" (Kozhevnikova, 1994). When comparing the two novels, this conclusion is probably true, but in War and Peace there are also a lot of cases of using improperly direct speech. In such cases, the interpenetration of the voices of the hero and the author, in particular the introduction of the author's voice, becomes especially noticeable. Here is one example: “He (Prince Andrei) looked at the singing Natasha, and something new and happy happened in his soul. He was happy and at the same time sad. He had absolutely nothing to cry about, but he was ready to cry. About what? About old love? About the little princess? About your disappointments? About your hopes for the future? Yes and no".

A remarkable feature of Tolstoy's manner lies in the ability to imperceptibly move from direct speech to indirect speech, then improperly direct speech and vice versa. Moreover, these switchings seem very organic, and the reader is amazed at how Tolstoy is able to comprehend and convey the state of heroes of various types, including women. “No matter how ashamed she (Princess Marya) was to admit that she was the first to love a man who, perhaps, would never love her, she consoled herself with the thought that no one would ever know this and that she would not be to blame if she was to the end life, without telling anyone about loving the one she loved for the first and last time, ”such are the thoughts of the heroine after meeting with Nikolai Rostov in Bogucharovo before the arrival of the French.

The statements of the characters in the form of internal monologues or indirect and improperly direct speech fit so organically into specific situation that in this case there is an impression of clarity, visibility of individual images and the situation as a whole. The feeling of plasticity and picturesqueness (not in the sense of beauty, but in the sense of clarity) is created in the process of both narration and description. At the same time, the narrator seems to be absent, giving the heroes themselves the right to demonstrate both their thoughts and actions.

However, at times the narrator does not want to remain inconspicuous, he directly accompanies the narrative and description with reasoning, or rather, emotionally colored reflections on the historical events and circumstances with which the fates of the characters were connected (this happens especially often in the third and fourth volumes of the work). It is the historical events of the twelfth year, which are very significant for the fate of Russia, that make the author need to characterize them in as much detail as possible and accompany them with his own judgments, thoughts about their possible causes and existing assessments.

Here, obviously, the author himself appears in the guise or image of the narrator, conveying his thoughts to him. This is evidenced by the nature of his speech, which combines the voice of Tolstoy the novelist, Tolstoy the historian and Tolstoy the judge, passing sentence on foreign invaders and proving that the victory over the French was inevitable and inevitable, and the feeling of the Motherland played the main role in this victory, which turned out to be inherent in the commander of the army, the wise Field Marshal Kutuzov, and the soldiers, and officers, and peasants who joined the partisan detachments and did not want to sell hay and other fodder to the French, and the residents of Moscow, who left it before the entry of the French army: “They went because that for them there could be no question whether it would be good or bad under the control of the French in Moscow. It was impossible to be under the control of the French: it was the worst of all .... They left each for themselves, and at the same time, that majestic event took place, which will forever remain the best glory of the Russian people.

As you can see, the intonation here is emotionally pathetic, created by various verbal means. Such intonation is especially noticeable in Kutuzov’s assessment: “Kutuzov knew not with his mind or science, but with his whole Russian being he knew and felt what every Russian soldier felt, that the French were defeated; but at the same time, he felt, along with the soldiers, the whole burden of this campaign, unheard of in speed and time. And further: “To the representative of the Russian people, after the enemy was destroyed, Russia was liberated and placed on the highest degree of its glory, the Russian person, as Russian, had nothing more to do. The representative of the people's war had no choice but death. And he died." What is important here is not so much a statement of fact as an emotional assessment of the author.

So the proposed brief analysis content-formal features of "War and Peace" allows us to note that the peculiar dominant style in this work is the predominance of subject representation, which includes, in addition to reproducing actions, deeds, descriptions of the interiors, nature, appearance of the characters, the transfer of their internal state with the help of different types the speeches of the characters themselves and the narrator. The reconstruction of the inner world of a person, that is, the psychologism that is inherent in the most diverse works of Tolstoy (“dialectics of the soul”, according to Chernyshevsky), is so organic that sometimes it becomes invisible, intertwining with the narrative and testifying to the artist’s amazing ability to draw everything that can be seen , imagine, imagine and “hear” with inner hearing. This is where the feeling of plasticity arises, i.e. visibility, visibility, picturesque or sculptural nature of the depicted world, which does not exclude the expressiveness and emotionality emanating from the moods of the characters themselves, and the assessment of everything that happens by an interested author.

Returning to the theoretical definition of style, it should be emphasized once again that style - this is not a simple connection of form elements, but the principle of their combination and interaction. Therefore, the style can be seen in different works of one author, and sometimes in the works of different authors, mostly belonging to the same period or era. Then the style acquires the properties of a typological phenomenon. At the same time, in the work of an artist who addresses different themes and genres, there may be an inclination towards different style variations. It follows from this that style is an individual phenomenon, characteristic, as a rule, of great masters, due to which the concept arose great style. But general tendencies can be seen in the style, due to the commonality of artistic searches in the field of literature at one stage or another of its development.

In literary criticism, style is understood as the unity of all elements. art form. That is, one can speak about the style of a work only when the artistic form of this work has reached a certain aesthetic perfection and has become capable of influencing the minds of readers.

Unfortunately, it should be noted that in most of the texts posted on the prozero, there is no style at all. Almost all so-called. "proi" are devoid of any aesthetic value, and talking about the expressiveness of their art form is simply ridiculous. Now I'm not attacking anyone, I'm just pointing out: graphomania is the first and necessary (!) Stage in the author's development. First, the author must learn to somehow write down the thoughts that are bubbling in his head. The appearance of style is a much later stage.

This article is addressed to authors who have already reached a certain level writing skills: skillfully lead the story, are strong in building a composition, capable of recreating artistic details. All this is the beginning of an artistic style and, accordingly, requires further polishing.
I hope that some theoretical data will help interested authors to work on their style not on a whim (consider - by touch and in the dark), but consciously and purposefully.

Well, if you write prose because it is written by itself - with the heart, without the participation of the brain, then you do not need to load yourself with such concepts as style. Your literary happiness is not in him (emoticon)

1. The style of the literary movement and the individual style of the author
2. Style dominants
Plot, descriptiveness, psychologism
Conditionality and lifelikeness
Monologism and heteroglossia. Polyphony
Simple and complex composition
3. Work on the style of your own work
4. Subjectivity of perception of style
5. Style and originality
6. Epigonism
Literary imitation and borrowing. Stylization
7. Resume

I had already collected all the material, I already saw
what should be the structure, but did not find the right one
tones ... began to search, and searched until he realized
that the most plausible would be the manner in which my
grandmother told the most incredible, most
fantastic things, told them completely
natural tone; I consider him to be the basis of the novel
"One Hundred Years of Solitude" - from the point of view of literary
skill. (Gabriel Garcia Marquez)

To begin with, we will separate the concepts of “individual style of the author” and “style of the literary movement”.

The style of direction is the attitude that unites many authors.
For example, classicism.

With heartfelt regret, I learned from your letter what weakness Milo plunged himself into. He is in love with a contemptuous woman, and you, my Sofyushka, are jealous of this creature! I know a lot of good fellows who are subject to such weakness. These women, who fill your free masquerades, the number of which is becoming quite large here in Moscow, have a special art of catching young people in their nets and turning their heads. Believe, however, Sofyushka, that your head is not in the best condition either. You grieve day and night, you are engaged in vengeance. Beware my friend! You are acting imprudently. The virtue of a wife does not consist in being on guard with her husband, but in being an accomplice in his fate, and a virtuous wife must patiently endure her husband's madness. He looks for fun in the arms of his mistress, but after the first madness he will look for his former friend in his wife. Most of all, do not aggravate one evil to another, not a single foolishness to others, the strongest. A fire that is not fanned will soon go out on its own: this is a kind of passion. Fighting stubbornly with them, you annoy them more; do not notice them, they will tame themselves. (Fonvizin)

Destroy the monarch's confidant ignorance! Thirty days only I listen to your moaning And I see that you are tormented on the throne forever. What's in store for Demetrius? What sadness interferes with your bliss? Or is the throne no longer comforting you? Although you were unhappy, your age is now new. That sky gave away what Godunov took away. The villain could not open the door to your coffin, Fate took you from the jaws of evil death, And the truth brought you to the throne of your fathers. What sorrows did fate give you? (Sumarokov)

You shine with peace and war in the sunflower, And by that you multiply your people's fun. To you with zeal, we to our Minerva, We bring the joyful radiance of lights. But if it were compared with our love, Then the sun would be ashamed in front of him at noon. (Lomonosov)

I am sure that you have grasped the meaning of these examples - what is the style of direction = its characteristic features.

It is clear that the era also determines the individual style of the author, but for some simplification in this article we will neglect the so-called. the upper, typological, level of the concept of "style", let's go down to the lowest - the author's individuality.

STYLE DOMINANTS

In the text of a work there are always some points at which the style "comes out". Such points serve as a kind of stylistic "tuning fork", tune the reader to a certain "aesthetic wave" ... Style is presented as "a kind of surface on which a unique mark has been identified, a form that betrays the presence of one guiding force with its structure." (P.V. Palievskiy)

Here we are talking about STYLE DOMINANTS, which play an organizing role in the work. That is, they, the dominants, must be subject to all techniques and elements.

Style dominators are:
- plot, descriptiveness and psychologism,
- conditionality and lifelikeness,
- monologism and heterogeneity,
- verse and prose
- nominativity and rhetoric,
- simple and complex types compositions.

PLOT, DESCRIPTION, PSYCHOLOGISM

Plot is the predominance of event dynamics in the work. The plot is dynamic, carries a significant content load. Static elements (non-plot elements, psychological motivations for the characters' actions) are kept to a minimum.

So, if you are writing action (the hero runs away from enemies on the roof, slides down the slope, bullets whistle at the temple, and the crowd below roars: kill him, Shilov !!), then introducing a lengthy description of the sunset will be clearly superfluous. Even if you describe a very beautiful sunset.

Another thing is if your thing is based on DESCRIPTION,
which is characterized by the predominance of static moments - detailed detail outside world. As, for example, in Turgenev, there are whole paragraphs of descriptions of forests and fields through which the lyrical hero roams.

Psychologism and descriptiveness weaken the plot, which in this case plays an auxiliary role.
A striking example is Dead Souls» Gogol. In the poem, the plot exists only to be distracted from it. The leading conflict of the work (contradictions between the "dead" and the "alive") is realized by extra-plot elements, for example, the author's digressions (as if what the author would like to see) and pictures of reality (what really is).
For this author's task, both the composition form (description) and compositional techniques (repetition and amplification, injection of single-order details, impressions, characters, etc.) are selected. -details that affect the reader, first of all, by their mass.
Gogol perfectly matched the form of his work to the task - and this is an indicator of a polished, impeccable style.

How can we benefit from this knowledge?
First of all, to analyze our things and determine what we are more inclined to - to plot, psychologism or descriptiveness? And then to cultivate this particular trait, not to allow yourself to blur the style of the work.
I anticipate the objection: well, there is no pure plot = without any descriptions and psychological motivation of the characters' actions!
Naturally, it doesn't. In any, even the most action-packed thriller, there will definitely be scenes of action. The question is the balance of these elements. The problem for novice authors is that they want to cram all the richness of life into their work, and as a result they get a salad of vegetables, fruits and minerals. The idea of ​​the work is the tyrant that must be obeyed when choosing a form.

CONVENTION AND LIVING

The world of a work of art reproduces reality in a kind of "abbreviated", conditional version.<…>. Literature takes only some of the phenomena of reality and then conventionally reduces or expands them. (Likhachev)

There are two trends in literature - CONVENTION (emphasizing the non-identity, and even opposition between the depicted and the forms of reality) and LIVING (leveling such differences, creating the illusion of the identity of art and life).

Conditionality is not exactly fantasy. For example, the image of Taras Bulba can also be called conditional. According to the text, he had exceptional features of appearance, for the description of which Gogol used the technique of hyperbole.

Also, the conditionality of what is happening can be emphasized through the grotesque.
Grotesque<…>helps release<…>from walking truths, allows you to look at the world in a new way, to feel<…>the possibility of a completely different world order. (Bakhtin)
Saltykov-Shchedrin, Gogol, Kafka, Hoffmann, Brecht worked in the style of conventionality.

LIFELIKENESS - this is the maximum approximation of the action to what could be "really".

A variant very beloved by prozers, when every second author seeks to swear that he wrote the "true truth." However, note that the stylistic dominant is called not “true-truth-so-everything-and-it-was-amen”, but “life-likeness”.
Literature is not a photographic representation of reality, which sometimes, within the framework of the general idea of ​​a work, is even harmful.
Lifelikeness is the desire of the author to bring the character (fictitious!) and the reader (real!) as close as possible.

MONOLOGISM AND DISSOLUTION

MONOLOGISM implies a single speech manner for all the characters in the work, coinciding, as a rule, with the speech manner of the narrator. As a stylistic dominant, monologism is associated with an authoritarian point of view on the world.

DIFFERENCE is the mastering of the diversity of speech manners. In this case, the author is interested in a variety of options for understanding actions, since different speech manners indicate a difference in thinking.

There are two types of diversity:
- reproduction of speech manners of different characters as mutually isolated
- and the case when the speech manners of different characters and the narrator interact in a certain way, "penetrate" each other. Bakhtin called this case "polyphony".

Monologism and heteroglossia as stylistic dominants completely determine the choice of presentation method.

Try to test your stuff - see how you deal with direct speech, how many dialogues you have, whether you use indirect speech. Based on this revision, you will draw a conclusion - which style dominant controls you.

VERSE AND PROSE

Here, let me confine myself to a statement - the speech form of a work can be prosaic or poetic. I think this position does not require special comments.

NOMINATION AND RHETORICITY

NOMINATION implies an emphasis primarily on the accuracy of a literary word when using neutral vocabulary, simple syntactic constructions, the absence of tropes, etc.

Nominativity is necessary for descriptiveness in order to create a complete and accurate idea of ​​objects and phenomena, without being distracted by speech prettiness.

In RHETORIC, on the other hand, the emphasis is on the word representing the object. Rhetorical speech is replete with beautiful, skillfully chosen expressions - tropes and, in particular, rhetorical figures: exclamations, antitheses, rhetorical questions, anaphoras, and so on.

According to my subjective feeling, novice authors most often stray precisely in artistic speech. For example, a work begins with an active, lively dialogue, and then - all of a sudden - the author switches to a single speech manner, most often authoritarian, which - also suddenly, for no reason at all - is colored with unreasonable prettiness. As a result, there is no style, and therefore no artistic value either.

SIMPLE AND COMPLEX COMPOSITION

In the most general form, there are two types of composition - simple and complex.

A SIMPLE composition is reduced only to the unification of the parts of the work into a single whole. In this case, there is a direct chronological sequence of events and a single narrative type throughout the entire work.

With a COMPLEX composition, the order of combination of parts reflects a special artistic sense.

For example, the author does not start with an exposition, but with some fragment of a climax or even a denouement. Or the narration is conducted, as it were, in two times - the hero “now” and the hero “in the past” (remembers some events that set off what is happening now). Or a double hero is introduced - generally from another galaxy - and the author plays on the comparison / opposition of episodes.

In fact, it is difficult to find a pure type of simple composition; as a rule, we are dealing with complex (to one degree or another) compositions.

Let's sum up the intermediate results.

1. Style is the way the author writes.
2. Style is the content form of a work.
3. Style is a system concept, all style elements are connected with each other. Violation of the principle of consistency is felt as a stylistic flaw.
4. Style markers are style dominants (see their list above)

This is the main thing you need to know about style in theory - before you try to audit the style in your own works.
And now I will deeply upset some aesthetes who believe that style is something ephemeral, indefinable and something that descended from above on rare lucky ones (these same aesthetes) - and it descended suddenly, solely by divine providence.
Far from it. Style is the ability of the author to build a story. And every skill is a skill brought to automatism. In other words, style is developed through long-term training. Someone comes to the result earlier, someone later. To shorten the path to the goal a little - there is a way. Write not by intuition, but based on experience already gained.
So, let's try to put the theory into practice.

WORK ON STYLE

STAGE ONE.

Highlight the style dominants inherent in you. Only in graphomaniac texts everything is present - both plot, descriptiveness, and psychologism. In real literary texts priority on one thing.

As an illustration.

Novels of Dostoevsky.
The stylistic dominants in them are psychologism and heteroglossia in the form of polyphony.
Naturally, among artistic details, internal ones prevail over external ones, and the external details themselves are psychologized in one way or another - they either become the emotional impression of the hero (axe, blood, cross, etc.), or reflect changes in the inner world (portrait details).
There is practically no description as such. Basically, not details-details are used, but single details-symbols that can be psychologized to a large extent.
The plot does not weaken, as one might expect, on the contrary, it is always impetuous and tense, replete with ups and downs. But in no novel does the plot have a self-sufficient meaning, it works for heteroglossia and psychologism: acute, extreme situations that arise every now and then in the course of the plot are designed primarily to provoke the ideological and emotional reaction of the characters, to stimulate their ideological and speech activity.
In the composition of novels, an unprecedentedly large place is occupied by the direct speech of the characters, both external and internal. The principle of polyphony is also realized in the nature of the narration: the narrator's word is just as initiative and tense as the hero's word, and just as "open" to someone else's speech, an indicator of which can be, first of all, the active use of such a narrative form as improperly direct speech.

L. Tolstoy "War and Peace".
The main stylistic principle is contrast, a distinct and sharp opposition, already stated in the title. Contrast is the organizing principle of composition, the depicted world and speech form. Compositionally, this principle is embodied in the constant pairing of images, in the opposition of war and peace, Russians and French, Natasha and Sonya, Natasha and Helen, Platon Karataev and Tikhon Shcherbaty, Kutuzov and Napoleon, Pierre and Andrei, Moscow and St. Petersburg, natural and artificial, external and inner being, etc.
In the field of psychologism, the stylistic regularity is embodied in the form of a constant internal struggle, a contrasting connection in the mind of the hero of opposite life impressions, in opposition to consciousness and subconsciousness.
In the field of subject representation, the stylistic principle manifests itself in bright, clearly defined portraits with a highlight of the leading feature, in a mismatch appearance and spiritual movements, in contrasting landscapes (for example, two descriptions of an oak), etc.
Speech forms also obey the principle of contrast: either heterogeneous stylistic layers are combined in the speech of the characters (for example, the speech of Pierre, Natasha, partly, Prince Andrei is characterized by the combination of sublime and colloquial vocabulary), or different speech manners are opposed to each other (Russian and French, opposition "talking machine" in Scherer's salon, Pierre's simple and natural speech, etc.); the speech of the narrator is distinctly separated from the speech of the characters.

STAGE TWO

Having decided on your “favorite” dominants, trace their “life” within one of your texts.

Remember that a style is not an element (=it is not localized in a specific place, like an artistic detail). Style, as they say, is poured throughout the structure. And if you see that for a piece “from the beginning” of your story, some dominants are characteristic, and “from the end” - completely different, then this is an occasion for serious reflection on the integrity of your thing.

Style is an organizing principle, each piece of text, even the smallest one (the so-called text point) must bear the imprint of the whole.

STAGE THREE

If you see that something is wrong with your style (you can’t single out dominants, they jump and don’t come into your hands), then you need to urgently work with this.

First of all, to determine: what are the SPECIFIC CONTENT objectives of your work?
Because the answer to this question is a well-defined answer! - put everything in its place. And stylistic dominance too))

SUBJECTIVITY OF STYLE ASSESSMENT

What style is the best? - But none. There is no such universal style that everyone would like together and each individually.

Any style can cause aesthetic controversy, that is, like or dislike. The fact is that the assessment of style is determined, first of all, by the consciousness of the reader. And our readers are very different - by age, upbringing, accumulated aesthetic experience, etc. In this regard, individual preferences arise - someone likes smooth and unhurried, someone likes confusion instead of music.
At the level of primary perception, this is normal. But if the author wants to become an Author (like this with capital letter), then one must be aware that there are also objective criteria, namely: the stylistic integrity of the work.
And you can't argue with that.

STYLE AND ORIGINALITY

In the concept of artistic style, an integral feature is originality = dissimilarity to other styles.

Ideally, an individual writing style should be easily recognizable in any work or even fragment, and this identification should take place already at the level of primary perception.
Immediately, in the first paragraph, your reader should recognize YOU - by the general tone, for example, emotional.
Of course, we are not talking about some template solutions. Yes, the stylistic dominant is mostly stable and repeatable (in this specific work), but during creative life author can change - otherwise how do we know that we have grown as authors?

I would especially like to note such a category of style as ORIGINALITY.
Not all originality can be called style. Hegel wrote a lot about this, it was he who singled out “manner” as “not genuine originality (achieved only in style as a synthesis of objective and subjective), but empty and superficial originality” (c)
There are writers who are original in form and manner, and there are writers who are only driven by the need to be like no one else.
So a work written without a single punctuation mark or "ladder" is not yet original.

The fate of all strong and energetic talents -
lead a long line of imitators.
M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin

EPIGON - (from the Greek epigonos - born after), in art, uncreative, mechanical adherence to traditional artistic techniques of any direction or style; his current images, motifs, stylistic turns are used as carriers of supposedly “ready-made” poetry or artistry.

Epigonism never reaches the artistic level of the original and does not introduce new values ​​into the history of literature.

So, behind the innovative story of N.M. Karamzin " Poor Lisa"Followed by a stream of works similar to her, not much different from one another ("Poor Masha", "The Story of the Unfortunate Margarita", etc.).
Following Pushkin's "Prisoner of the Caucasus" - "Kyrgyz Prisoner", "Kalmyk Prisoner", "Moscow Prisoner".
Following the "Bitter" - "Rebellious", "Clear", "Cold", "Hungry", etc.
It also happens that a writer who has shown himself brightly, later too often resorts to self-repetitions, becoming an epigone of himself (in our opinion, such a bright poet as A.A. Voznesensky did not avoid such a tilt). According to A.A. Fet, for poetry, "there is nothing more deadly than repetition, and even more so of oneself." (c) V.E. Khalizev Theory of Literature.

Epigonism is not literary imitation or borrowing.

IMITATION is a special kind of literary influence and is always a conscious following of other literary creativity.

Literary imitation as a phenomenon is inevitable, and there is such a period in the work of every author. Imitation is a way of learning, in my opinion, very effective - you just need to choose the subject to imitate wisely.
Lermontov's early lyrics sometimes almost copy Pushkin's poems. Turgenev's "old manner" reproduces Pushkin's, Lermontov's and Gogol's style in a clearly student way.

You imitate Tolstoy, - said Rudolph.
I got angry.
- Which of the Tolstoys exactly? I asked. - There were many of them ... Was it Alexei Konstantinovich, the famous writer, or Peter Andreevich, who caught Tsarevich Alexei abroad, was it Ivan Ivanovich, a numismatist, or Lev Nikolaich?
- Where did you study? (Bulgakov. Theatrical novel)

Imitation is dominated common features similarities with a literary model, in BORROWING - individual elements of someone else's (the basis of the plot, the situation, part of the text or individual expressions) are included in an essentially independent work.

A special kind of imitation is STYLIZATION.

However, these are topics for separate articles - although related to the theme of style. But after, after ... (c)))

Style literary work is made up of:
- a complex of themes and motives,
- images and ways of their construction,
- plot and compositional decisions.

Style is not only a set of different techniques, but also their internal connection.

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Discussion here

Fiction style

Art style- functional style of speech, which is used in fiction. In this style, it affects the imagination and feelings of the reader, conveys the thoughts and feelings of the author, uses all the richness of vocabulary, the possibilities of different styles, is characterized by figurativeness, emotionality of speech.

In a work of art, the word not only carries certain information, but also serves to aesthetically influence the reader with the help of artistic images. The brighter and more truthful the image, the stronger it affects the reader.

In their works, writers use, when necessary, not only words and forms of the literary language, but also obsolete dialect and vernacular words.

Facilities artistic expressiveness varied and numerous. These are tropes: comparisons, personifications, allegory, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc. And stylistic figures: epithet, hyperbole, litote, anaphora, epiphora, gradation, parallelism, rhetorical question, omission, etc.

Fiction is characterized by a concrete-figurative representation of life, in contrast to the abstract, objective, logical-conceptual reflection of reality in scientific speech. A work of art is characterized by perception through the senses and the re-creation of reality, the author seeks to convey, first of all, his personal experience, their understanding or comprehension of this or that phenomenon. But in a literary text, we see not only the world of the writer, but also the writer in this world: his preferences, condemnations, admiration, rejection, and the like. This is associated with emotionality and expressiveness, metaphorical, meaningful diversity of the artistic style of speech.

The basis of the artistic style of speech is the literary Russian language. The word in this functional style performs a nominative-figurative function. The words that form the basis of this style primarily include figurative means of the Russian literary language, as well as words that realize their meaning in the context. These are the words broad scope use. Highly specialized words are used to a small extent, only to create artistic authenticity in describing certain aspects of life.

IN art style speech, the speech polysemy of the word is widely used, which opens up additional meanings and semantic shades in it, as well as synonymy at all language levels, which makes it possible to emphasize the subtlest shades of meanings. This is explained by the fact that the author strives to use all the richness of the language, to create his own unique language and style, to a bright, expressive, figurative text. The author uses not only the vocabulary of the codified literary language, but also a variety of figurative means from colloquial speech and vernacular.

The emotionality and expressiveness of the image comes to the fore in the artistic text. Many words that in scientific speech act as clearly defined abstract concepts, in newspaper and journalistic speech - as socially generalized concepts, in artistic speech carry concrete sensory representations. Thus, the styles functionally complement each other. For example, the adjective lead in scientific speech realizes its direct meaning(lead ore, lead bullet), and in fiction it forms an expressive metaphor (lead clouds, lead noz, lead waves). Therefore, in artistic speech, phrases play an important role, which create a certain figurative representation.

Artistic speech, especially poetic speech, is characterized by inversion, i.e. a change in the usual word order in a sentence in order to enhance the semantic significance of a word, or to give the whole phrase a special stylistic coloring. An example of inversion is the well-known line from A. Akhmatova's poem "Everything I see is hilly Pavlovsk ..." Variants of the author's word order are diverse, subordinate common plan. But all these deviations in the text serve the law of artistic necessity.

6. Aristotle on six qualities of "good speech"

The term "rhetoric" (Greek Retorike), "oratory" (Latin orator, orare - to speak), "vititism" (obsolete, Old Slavonic), "eloquence" (Russian) are synonymous.

Rhetoric - a special science of the laws of "invention, arrangement and expression of thoughts in speech." Its modern interpretation is the theory of persuasive communication.

Aristotle defined rhetoric as the ability to find possible beliefs about any given subject, as the art of persuasion, which uses the possible and probable in cases where real certainty is insufficient. The business of rhetoric is not to convince, but in each given case to find ways of persuasion.

Oratory is understood as a high degree of skill in public speaking, a qualitative characteristic of oratory, skillful use of the word.

Eloquence in the dictionary of the living Great Russian language by V. Dahl is defined as eloquence, science and the ability to speak and write beautifully, convincingly and captivatingly.

Corax, who in the fifth century BC. opened a school of eloquence in Syrocusa and wrote the first rhetoric textbook, defined eloquence as follows: eloquence is the servant of persuasion. Comparing the above concepts “rhetoric”, “oratory”, “eloquence”, we find that they are united by the idea of ​​persuasion.

Aesthetics and self-expression of the speaker in oratory, the ability and ability to speak fascinatingly inherent in eloquence, as well as the scientific laws of rhetoric, they all serve one purpose - to convince. And these three concepts of “rhetoric”, “oratory” and “eloquence” differ in different accents that emphasize their content.

Oratory emphasizes aesthetics, self-expression of the author, eloquence emphasizes the ability and ability to speak in a fascinating way, and rhetoric emphasizes the scientific nature of principles and laws.

Rhetoric as a science and academic discipline have existed for thousands of years. IN different time included different content. She was considered as special genre literature, and as the skill of any kind of speech (oral and written), and as the science and art of oral speech.

Rhetoric, as the art of speaking well, needed an aesthetic assimilation of the world, an idea of ​​the elegant and the clumsy, the beautiful and the ugly, the beautiful and the ugly. The origins of rhetoric were an actor, a dancer, a singer who delighted and convinced people with their art.

At the same time, rhetoric was based on rational knowledge, on the difference between the real and the unreal, the real from the imaginary, the true from the false. A logician, a philosopher, a scientist participated in the creation of rhetoric. In the very formation of rhetoric, there was also a third principle; it united both types of knowledge: aesthetic and scientific. Ethics was such a beginning.

So the rhetoric was triune. It was the art of persuading with the word, the science of the art of persuading with the word, and the process of persuasion based on moral principles.

Even in antiquity, two main trends developed in rhetoric. The first, coming from Aristotle, connected rhetoric with logic and suggested that persuasive, effective speech be considered good speech. At the same time, efficiency also came down to persuasiveness, the ability of speech to win recognition (consent, sympathy, sympathy) of listeners, to make them act in a certain way. Aristotle defined rhetoric as "the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject."

The second direction also arose in Dr. Greece. Among its founders are m Socrates and other rhetors. Its representatives were inclined to consider richly decorated, magnificent speech, built according to aesthetic canons, to be good. Persuasiveness continued to matter, but was not the only and not the main criterion for evaluating speech. Therefore, the direction in rhetoric, originating from Aristotle, can be called "logical", and from Socrates - literary.

The doctrine of the culture of speech originated in ancient Greece within the framework of rhetoric as a doctrine of the merits and demerits of speech. In rhetorical treatises, prescriptions were given for what speech should be and what should be avoided in it. These papers provided guidance on how to correctness, purity, clarity, accuracy, consistency and expressiveness of speech, as well as advice on how to achieve this. In addition, even Aristotle urged not to forget about the addressee of the speech: "Speech consists of three elements: the speaker himself, the subject he speaks about, and the person to whom he refers and which is, in fact, the ultimate goal of everything." Thus, Aristotle and other rhetoricians drew the attention of readers to the fact that rhetorical heights, the art of speech can be achieved only on the basis of mastering the basics of speech skill.

(Symbol - from the Greek. Symbolon - a conventional sign)

1. The central place is given to the symbol *
2. The striving for the highest ideal prevails
3. The poetic image is intended to express the essence of any phenomenon.
4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two plans: real and mystical
5. Elegance and musicality of the verse

The founder was D. S. Merezhkovsky, who in 1892 delivered a lecture “On the Causes of the Decline and New Trends in Modern Russian Literature” (article published in 1893). Symbolists are divided into senior ones ((V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub debuted in the 1890s) and younger (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov and others debuted in the 1900s)

Acmeism

(From the Greek "acme" - a point, the highest point). The literary current of acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically associated with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) M. Kuzmin's article "On Fine Clarity", published in 1910, had an influence on the formation. In the program article of 1913 "The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism" N. Gumilyov called symbolism " worthy father", but emphasized at the same time that the new generation had developed a "courageously firm and clear outlook on life"

1. Orientation towards classical poetry of the 19th century
2. Acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity, visible concreteness
3. Objectivity and clarity of images, sharpness of details
4. In rhythm, acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional
regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brought the poem closer to live colloquial speech

Futurism

Futurism - from lat. futurum, the future. Genetically, literary futurism is closely connected with the avant-garde groups of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups "Jack of Diamonds", " donkey tail”, “Union of Youth”. In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article "Manifesto of Futurism." In 1912, the manifesto "Slap in the face of public taste" was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: "Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs." Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.

1. Rebelliousness, anarchic worldview
2. Rejection of cultural traditions
3. Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figured arrangement of stanzas and lines
4. Active word creation

Imagism

From lat. imago - image A literary trend in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity was to create an image. Main means of expression Imagists - a metaphor, often metaphorical chains, comparing the various elements of two images - direct and figurative. Imagism arose in 1918, when the "Order of Imagists" was founded in Moscow. The creators of the "Order" were Anatoly Mariengof, Vadim Shershenevich and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously a member of the group of new peasant poets